a b s t r a c tThe relationship between the conscious experience of physical symptoms and indicators of objective physiological dysfunction is highly variable and depends on characteristics of the person, the context and their interaction. This relationship often breaks down entirely in the case of "medically unexplained" or functional somatic symptoms, violating the basic assumption in medicine that physical symptoms have physiological causes. In this paper, we describe the prevailing theoretical approach to this problem and review the evidence pertaining to it. We then use the framework of predictive coding to propose a new and more comprehensive model of the body-symptom relationship that integrates existing concepts within a unifying framework that addresses many of the shortcomings of current theory. We describe the conditions under which a close correspondence between the experience of symptoms and objective physiology might be expected, and when they are likely to diverge. We conclude by exploring some theoretical and clinical implications of this new account.

h i g h l i g h t sResidents are an important target group for destination branding, since they, e.g., work as place ambassadors. (Destination) branding often simplifies messages, but this could be not effective for complex brands.Residents have a wider knowledge of the place and could disagree with a simplified brand. For residents, positive place attitude and place behaviour is increased with a higher brand complexity. Positive relationship between brand complexity and place attitude and behaviour is stronger for residents than for tourists. a r t i c l e i n f o b s t r a c tThis article contributes to a broader understanding of how the branding of places affects both residents and tourists. While branding often relies on simplified messages, the effectiveness of such strategies for complex brands remains questionable. Residents in particular possess a confounded knowledge of the place and could disagree with simplified destination brands. To test the role of brand complexity for residents and tourists, we conducted two empirical studies (N ¼ 765; N ¼ 385), showing that, for residents, positive place attitude (i.e., place satisfaction, identification, and attachment) and place behaviour (i.e., positive word-of-mouth) increase with a higher brand complexity. The second study shows that the positive relationship of brand complexity is stronger for residents than for tourists, supporting the conclusion that brand complexity is relevant for place brands, but that the place brand for residents requires more complexity than a destination brand, while it imperative that both are integrative parts of an overall brand.

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Research from social and environmental psychology has shown that identification by residents with a place leads to numerous desirable outcomes like increased commitment and residential satisfaction. Thus, in the competition for residents, cities focus on building a favorable identity of a place to increase identification with the place. However, little is known regarding the predictors of resident-city identification and their link to desirable outcomes. We thus present an interdisciplinary model which outlines determinants and outcomes of identification and which integrates theories from geography, psychology, and organizational science to introduce a new theoretical perspective to the field of urban research. We propose that a strong resident-city identification results from a fit between the city prototype and the resident's self-concept. In this relationship, perceived place complexity is a central variable. We develop research propositions and suggest an agenda for testing the model empirically. Finally, we discuss how increasing resident-city identification by using a more complex communication can benefit both the city and its inhabitants.

Anxiety and anxiety sensitivity are positively related to accuracy in the perception of bodily sensations. At the same time, research consistently reports that these traits are positively related to bias, resulting in the report of more and more intense symptoms that poorly correspond with physiological dysfunction. The aim of this study was to test the relationship of accuracy and bias in interoception. Furthermore, we tested the impact of individual differences in negative affect and symptom report in daily life on interoceptive accuracy and bias. Individuals higher in symptom report in daily life and negative affect were marginally more accurate in an interoceptive classification task in which participants were asked to identify different respiratory stimuli (inducing breathing effort) as belonging to a high or low intensity category. At the same time, bias in overestimating intensity of stimuli was significantly increased in participants higher in symptom report and negative affect, but only for more ambiguous stimuli. Results illustrate that interoceptive accuracy and bias need to be considered independently to understand their interaction with psychological factors and to disentangle (mis)perception of bodily sensations from liberal or conservative perceptual decision strategies.

Idiopathic environmental intolerance refers to a group of poorly understood health conditions characterized by heterogeneous somatic symptoms that occur in response to environmental triggers, but for which no physiological causes can be found. We focus on three varieties, namely symptoms attributed to (1) chemical substances; (2) to electromagnetic fields; and (3) to infrasound and vibroacoustic sources. As no clear link with organ pathology or dysfunction has been established so far, we review critical evidence about alternative causal mechanisms as a platform for a novel unifying model of these conditions. There is consistent evidence that expectancy and nocebo mechanisms are critically involved. Using recent predictive coding models of brain functioning, we describe a comprehensive new model to explain how symptoms come about and become linked to specific environmental cues. This new model integrates phenomenally different pathologies, suggests testable new hypotheses and specifies implications for treatment.

BACKGROUND: Patients with COPD suffer from chronic dyspnea, which is commonly perceived as highly aversive and threatening. Moreover, COPD is often accompanied by disease-specific fears and avoidance of physical activity. However, little is known about structural brain changes in patients with COPD and respective relations with disease duration and disease-specific fears.

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