As a consequence of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), blood components enter brain parenchyma causing progressive damage to the surrounding brain. Unless hematoma is cleared, the reservoirs of blood continue to inflict injury to neurovascular structures and blunt the brain repair processes. Microglia/macrophages (MM Φ) represent the primary phagocytic system that mediates the cleanup of hematoma. Thus the efficacy of phagocytic function by MM Φ is an essential step in limiting ICH-mediated damage. By using primary microglia to model red blood cell (main component of hematoma) clearance, we studied the role of transcription factor Nrf2, a master-regulator of anti-oxidative defense, in the hematoma clearance process. We showed that in cultured microglia, activators of Nrf2 1) induce anti-oxidative defense components, 2) reduce peroxide formation, 3) upregulate phagocytosis-mediating scavenger receptor CD36, and 4) enhance RBC phagocytosis. Through inhibiting Nrf2 or CD36 in microglia, by DNA-decoy or neutralizing antibody, we documented the important role of Nrf2 and CD36 in RBC phagocytosis. Using autologous blood injection ICH model to measure hematoma resolution, we showed that Nrf2 activator, sulforaphane, injected to animals after the onset of ICH, induced CD36 expression in ICH-affected brain and improved hematoma clearance in rats and wild-type mice, but expectedly not in Nrf2-knockout-(KO) mice. Normal hematoma clearance was impaired in Nrf2-KO mice. Our experiments suggest that Nrf2 in microglia play an important role in augmenting the anti-oxidative capacity, phagocytosis and hematoma clearance after ICH.
Shortly after intracerebral hemorrhage, neutrophils infiltrate the intracerebral hemorrhage-injured brain. Once within the brain, neutrophils degranulate, releasing destructive molecules that may exacerbate brain damage. However, neutrophils also release beneficial molecules, including iron-scavenging lactoferrin that may limit hematoma/iron-mediated brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhage. Here, we show that the immunoregulatory cytokine interleukin-27 is upregulated centrally and peripherally after intracerebral hemorrhage. Data from rodent models indicate that interleukin-27 modifies neutrophil maturation in the bone marrow, suppressing their production of pro-inflammatory/cytotoxic products while increasing their production of beneficial iron-scavenging molecules, including lactoferrin. Finally, interleukin-27 or lactoferrin administration results in reduced edema, enhanced hematoma clearance, and improved neurological outcomes in an animal model of intracerebral hemorrhage. These results suggest that interleukin-27/lactoferrin-mediated modulations of neutrophil function may represent a therapeutically viable concept for the modification of neutrophils toward a “beneficial” phenotype for the treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage.
Background and Purpose Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) represents a devastating form of stroke for which there is no effective treatment. This pre-clinical study was designed to evaluate dimethyl fumarate (DMF), a substance recently approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis, as therapy for in ICH. We hypothesized that DMF through activating the “master regulator” of cellular self-defense responses, transcription factor Nrf2, would act as effective treatment for ICH-mediated damage. Methods Male rats and mice, including Nrf2 knockouts were subjected to intracerebral injection of blood (to mimic ICH) and then treated with DMF. Neurological deficit, brain edema, gene induction profile and hematoma resolution were evaluated. Phagocytic functions of primary microglia in culture were used to study hematoma resolution. Results Treatment with DMF induced Nrf2-target genes, improved hematoma resolution, reduced brain edema and ultimately enhanced neurological recovery in rats and wild-type, but not Nrf2 knockout mice. Most importantly, the treatment of ICH with DMF showed a 24h window of therapeutic opportunity. Conclusions A clinically relevant dose of DMF demonstrates potent therapeutic efficacy and impressive 24h therapeutic window of opportunity. This study merits further evaluation of this compound as potential treatment for ICH in humans.
Astrocytes are an integral component of the neurovascular unit where they act as homeostatic regulators, especially after brain injuries, such as stroke. One process by which astrocytes modulate homeostasis is the release of functional mitochondria (Mt) that are taken up by other cells to improve their function. However, the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of Mt transfer are unclear and likely multifactorial. Using a cell culture system, we established that astrocytes release both intact Mt and humanin (HN), a small bioactive peptide normally transcribed from the Mt genome. Further experiments revealed that astrocyte-secreted Mt enter microglia, where they induce HN expression. Similar to the effect of HN alone, incorporation of Mt by microglia (1) upregulated expression of the transcription factor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and its target genes (including mitochondrial superoxide dismutase), ( 2 ) enhanced phagocytic activity toward red blood cells (an in vitro model of hematoma clearance after intracerebral hemorrhage [ICH]), and(3) reduced proinflammatory responses. ICH induction in male mice caused profound HN loss in the affected hemisphere. Intravenously administered HN penetrated perihematoma brain tissue, reduced neurological deficits, and improved hematoma clearance, a function that normally requires microglia/macrophages. This study suggests that astrocytic Mt-derived HN could act as a beneficial secretory factor, including when transported within Mt to microglia, where it promotes a phagocytic/reparative phenotype. These findings also indicate that restoring HN levels in the injured brain could represent a translational target for ICH. These favorable biological responses to HN warrant studies on HN as therapeutic target for ICH.
LTF delivered to the ICH-affected brain by infiltrating PMNs may assist in hematoma detoxification and represent a powerful potential target for the treatment of ICH.
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