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Conventional treatments for chronic periodontitis are less effective in controlling inflammation and often relapse. Therefore, it is necessary to explore an immunomodulatory medication as an adjuvant. Ginsenoside Rb3 (Rb3), one of the most abundant active components of ginseng, has been found to possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Here, we detected the anti-inflammatory effect of Rb3 on Porphyromonas gingivalis LPS-stimulated human periodontal ligament cells and experimental periodontitis rats for the first time. We found that the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, including IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8, upregulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation was remarkably downregulated by Rb3 treatment in a dose-dependent manner at both transcriptional and translational levels. Network pharmacological analysis of Rb3 showed that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway had the highest richness and that p38, JNK, and ERK molecules were potential targets of Rb3 in humans. Western blot analysis revealed that Rb3 significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB, as well as decreased the expression of total AKT. In experimental periodontitis rat models, reductions in alveolar bone resorption and osteoclast generation were observed in the Rb3 treatment group. Thus, we can conclude that Rb3 ameliorated Porphyromonas gingivalis LPS-induced inflammation by inhibiting the MAPK/AKT/NF-κB signaling pathways and attenuated alveolar bone resorption in experimental periodontitis rats.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a common type of neurodegenerative disorders, is characterized by progressive cognition and behaviour impairment. The pathological hallmarks of AD are extracellular amyloidβ (Aβ) peptide plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles formed by hyperphosphorylated tau protein (Holtzman et al., 2011).According to the World Alzheimer Report 2018, 82 million people will be diagnosed with dementia and the estimated worldwide cost will rise to $2 trillion by 2030 (Patterson, 2018), presenting a great challenge and significant burden on the ageing society. Though the pathogenesis of AD remains unclear, accumulating studies have demonstrated that microbiome contributes to AD (Miklossy et al., 2006;Poole et al., 2013;Riviere et al., 2002). Firstly, several microbiota and/or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) have been detected in the brain tissue of AD patients, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae (Balin et al.,

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China National Petroleum Corporation collaborated with researchers from the University of California and Tsinghua University to develop software for planning its natural gas pipelines. The work resulted in increased profits of $530 million between 2015 and 2017 and a budget reduction of more than $20 billion in construction costs for the subsequent five years.