This study aimed at identifying antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory
peptides derived from the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of germinated
and heated (microwave and boiling) foxtail millet. The protein digest
fraction containing low-molecular-weight peptides (<3 kDa) and
the most hydrophobic subfraction (F4) abundant in random coil structure
were responsible for the bioactivity. Then, seven novel peptides were
identified using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry
(LC-MS/MS) from the most potent F4 subfraction derived from boiled
germinated millet. All seven synthesized peptides significantly (p < 0.05) reduced reactive oxygen species production
and increased glutathione content and superoxide dismutase activity
in Caco-2 cells, whereas two peptides (EDDQMDPMAK and QNWDFCEAWEPCF)
were superior in inhibiting nitric oxide, tumor necrosis factor-α
(reduced to 42.29 and 44.07%, respectively), and interleukin-6 (reduced
to 56.59 and 43.45%, respectively) production in a RAW 264.7 cell
model. This study is the first to report about the potential role
of germinated and heated foxtail millet as a source of dual antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory peptides.
Celiac disease (CD) is an autoimmune intestinal disorder caused by the ingestion of gluten in people who carry the susceptible gene. In current celiac disease research, wheat gluten is often the main target of attention, neglecting the role played by non-gluten proteins. This study aimed to describe the effects of wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors (ATI, non-gluten proteins) and gliadin in BALB/c mice while exploring the further role of relevant adjuvants (cholera toxin, polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid and dextran sulfate sodium) intervention. An ex vivo splenocyte and intestinal tissue were collected for analysis of the inflammatory profile. The consumption of gliadin and ATI caused intestinal inflammation in mice. Moreover, the histopathology staining of four intestinal sections (duodenum, jejunum, terminal ileum, and middle colon) indicated that adjuvants, especially polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid, enhanced the villi damage and crypt hyperplasia in co-stimulation with ATI and gliadin murine model. Immunohistochemical results showed that tissue transglutaminase and IL-15 expression were significantly increased in the jejunal tissue of mice treated with ATI and gliadin. Similarly, the expression of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-13) and Th1/Th2 balance also showed that the inflammation response was significantly increased after co-stimulation with ATI and gliadin. This study provided new evidence for the role of wheat amylase trypsin inhibitors in the pathogenesis of celiac disease.
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