Viremic non-progressors (VNPs), a distinct group of HIV-1-infected individuals, exhibit no signs of disease progression and maintain persistently elevated CD4+ T cell counts for several years despite high viral replication. Comprehensive characterization of homeostatic cellular immune signatures in VNPs can provide unique insights into mechanisms responsible for coping with viral pathogenesis as well as identifying strategies for immune restoration under clinically relevant settings such as antiretroviral therapy (ART) failure. We report a novel homeostatic signature in VNPs, the preservation of the central memory CD4+ T cell (CD4+ T CM) compartment. In addition, CD4+ T CM preservation was supported by ongoing interleukin-7 (IL-7)-mediated thymic repopulation of naive CD4+ T cells leading to intact CD4+ T cell homeostasis in VNPs. Regulatory T cell (Treg) expansion was found to be a function of preserved CD4+ T cell count and CD4+ T cell activation independent of disease status. However, in light of continual depletion of CD4+ T cell count in progressors but not in VNPs, Tregs appear to be involved in lack of disease progression despite high viremia. In addition to these homeostatic mechanisms resisting CD4+ T cell depletion in VNPs, a relative diminution of terminally differentiated effector subset was observed exclusively in these individuals that might ameliorate consequences of high viral replication. VNPs also shared signatures of impaired CD8+ T cell cytotoxic function with progressors evidenced by increased exhaustion (PD-1 upregulation) and CD127 (IL-7Rα) downregulation contributing to persistent viremia. Thus, the homeostatic immune signatures reported in our study suggest a complex multifactorial mechanism accounting for non-progression in VNPs.

Integrin α4β7 expressing CD4+ T cells are preferred targets for HIV infection and are thought to be predictors of disease progression. Concurrent analysis of integrin α4β7 expressing innate and adaptive immune cells was carried out in antiretroviral (ART) therapy naïve HIV infected women in order to determine its contribution to HIV induced immune dysfunction. Our results demonstrate a HIV infection associated decrease in the frequency of integrin α4β7 expressing endocervical T cells along with an increase in the frequency of integrin α4β7 expressing peripheral monocytes and central memory CD4+ T cells, which are considered to be viral reservoirs. We report for the first time an increase in levels of soluble MAdCAM-1 (sMAdCAM-1) in HIV infected individuals as well as an increased frequency and count of integrin β7Hi CD8+ memory T cells. Correlation analysis indicates that the frequency of effector memory CD8+ T cells expressing integrin α4β7 is associated with levels of both sMAdCAM-1 and TGF-β1. The results of this study also suggest HIV induced alterations in T cell homeostasis to be on account of disparate actions of sMAdCAM-1 and TGF-β1 on integrin α4β7 expressing T cells. The immune correlates identified in this study warrant further investigation to determine their utility in monitoring disease progression.

Immune cell dysregulation and lymphopenia characterize COVID‐19 pathology in moderate to severe disease. While underlying inflammatory factors have been extensively studied, homeostatic and mucosal migratory signatures remain largely unexplored as causative factors. In this study, we evaluated the association of circulating IL‐6, soluble mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule (sMAdCAM), and IL‐15 with cellular dysfunction characterizing mild and hypoxemic stages of COVID‐19. A cohort of SARS‐CoV‐2 infected individuals (n = 130) at various stages of disease progression together with healthy controls (n = 16) were recruited from COVID Care Centres (CCCs) across Mumbai, India. Multiparametric flow cytometry was used to perform in‐depth immune subset characterization and to measure plasma IL‐6 levels. sMAdCAM, IL‐15 levels were quantified using ELISA. Distinct depletion profiles, with relative sparing of CD8 effector memory and CD4+ regulatory T cells, were observed in hypoxemic disease within the lymphocyte compartment. An apparent increase in the frequency of intermediate monocytes characterized both mild as well as hypoxemic disease. IL‐6 levels inversely correlated with those of sMAdCAM and both markers showed converse associations with observed lympho‐depletion suggesting opposing roles in pathogenesis. Interestingly, IL‐15, a key cytokine involved in lymphocyte activation and homeostasis, was detected in symptomatic individuals but not in healthy controls or asymptomatic cases. Further, plasma IL‐15 levels negatively correlated with T, B, and NK count suggesting a compensatory production of this cytokine in response to the profound lymphopenia. Finally, higher levels of plasma IL‐15 and IL‐6, but not sMAdCAM, were associated with a longer duration of hospitalization.

The role of sMAdCAM, an important gut immune migratory marker, remains unexplored in COVID-19 pathogenesis considering recent studies positing the gut as a sanctuary site for SARS-CoV-2 persistence. Thus, assimilating profiles of systemic inflammatory mediators with sMAdCAM levels may provide insights into the progression of COVID-19 disease. Also, the role of these markers in governing virus specific immunity following infection remains largely unexplored. A cohort (n = 84) of SARS-C0V-2 infected individuals included a group of in-patients (n = 60) at various stages of disease progression together with convalescent individuals (n = 24) recruited between April and June 2020 from Mumbai, India. Follow-up of 35 in-patients at day 7 post diagnosis was carried out. Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines along with soluble MAdCAM (sMAdCAM) levels in plasma were measured. Also, anti-viral humoral response as measured by rapid antibody test (IgG, IgM), Chemiluminescent Immunoassay (IgG), and antibodies binding to SARS-CoV-2 proteins were measured by Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) from plasma. IL-6 and sMAdCAM levels among in-patients inversely correlated with one another. When expressed as a novel integrated marker—sMIL index (sMAdCAM/IL-6 ratio)—these levels were incrementally and significantly higher in various disease states with convalescents exhibiting the highest values. Importantly, sMAdCAM levels as well as sMIL index (fold change) correlated with peak association response units of receptor binding domain and fold change in binding to spike respectively as measured by SPR. Our results highlight key systemic and gut homing parameters that need to be monitored and investigated further to optimally guide therapeutic and prophylactic interventions for COVID-19.

IMPORTANCE: Recent studies positing the gut as a sanctuary site for viral persistence in SARS-CoV-2 infection highlight the importance of assimilating profiles of systemic as well as gut inflammatory mediators to understand the pathology of COVID-19. Also, the role of these markers in governing virus specific immunity following infection remains largely unexplored. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of systemic and gut inflammatory markers in disease progression and development of anti-viral humoral immunity following SARS-CoV-2 infection. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: This cohort study (n=58) of SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals included a group of in-patients (n=36) at various stages of disease progression together with convalescent individuals (n=22) recruited between April and June 2020 (peak of the epidemic) from a tertiary care hospital in Mumbai, India. Follow-up of 11 in-patients at day 7 post diagnosis was carried out, resulting in a total of 47 in-patient samples. EXPOSURES: Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infections was confirmed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction-based testing of nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal samples. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Primary outcomes were the measurement of inflammatory markers including Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines and levels of soluble mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule (sMAdCAM) in plasma. Anti-viral humoral response was measured by rapid antibody test (IgG, IgM) and chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA) (IgG). Also antibodies binding to SARS-CoV-2 proteins were measured by surface plasmon resonance (SPR). Secondary outcomes were correlation of the inflammatory signature with clinical information, including age, sex, disease duration and co-morbidities. RESULTS: Twenty eight of 36 (78%) in-patients and 19 of 22 (86%) convalescents were males. Out of 47 in-patient samples, 22 (46%), 11 (23%) and 14 (30%) were IgG-/IgM-, IgG+/IgM+ and IgG+/IgM- respectively. Of 22 convalescent samples, 3 (14%), 1 (4%) and 17 (77%) were respectively IgG-/IgM-, IgG+/IgM+ and IgG+/IgM-. Two out of 22 (9%) convalescents showed high IL-6 levels (>100pg/ml) and 4 (18%) had high TNF levels (>30pg/ml). However, the convalescents (n =22) had significantly lower levels of IL-6 [Median=27.48 (IQR=23.54-39.92)] compared to followed up in-patients (n = 11) at day 0 [Median=111(IQR=68-129.7), p =0.0002] and higher levels of sMAdCAM [Median=1940 (1711-2174) pg/ml] compared to these individuals at day 0 [Median=1701 (IQR=1532-1836) pg/ml; p=0.032] and day 7 [Median=1534 (IQR=1236-1654) pg/ml; p=0.0007]. Further, IL-6 and sMAdCAM levels among in-patients inversely correlated with one another (r =-0.374, p = 0.009, CI = 95%). When expressed as a novel integrated marker, sMIL (sMAdCAM/IL-6 ratio) index, these levels were incrementally and significantly higher across various disease states with convalescents exhibiting the highest values [Median= 64.74 (IQR=47.33-85.58)]. Also, the sMIL index was significantly higher in convalescents (with class-switched responses) compared to IgG+/IgM+ individuals at early stages of infection [Median=28.65 (IQR=13.63-96.26), p = 0.034]. Real-time measurement by SPR of plasma antibody binding to viral nucleocapsid (NC), receptor binding domain (RBD) and spike (S) revealed waxing and waning of plasma antibody responses to all 3 targets. Importantly, sMAdCAM levels as well as sMIL index (fold change) correlated with peak association rates of RBD-binding (r = 0.462, p = 0.03, CI = 95%) and fold change in binding to S (r = 0.68, p = 0.050, CI = 95%) respectively. CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE: Our results highlight key systemic and gut-associated immune parameters that need to be monitored and investigated further to optimally guide therapeutic and prophylactic interventions for COVID-19.

Background India bears the second largest burden of SARS-CoV-2 infection. A multitude of RT-PCR detection assays with disparate gene targets including automated high throughput platforms are available. Varying concordance and interpretation of diagnostic results in this setting can result in significant reporting delays leading to suboptimal disease management. Here, we report the development of a novel ORF-1a based SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR assay, Viroselect, showing high concordance with conventional assays and the ability to resolve inconclusive results generated during the peak of the epidemic in Mumbai, India. Methods We identified a unique target region within SARS-CoV-2 ORF1a, non-structural protein ( nsp3 ), that was used to design and develop our assay. This hypervariable region (1923-3956) between SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV was utilized to design our primers and probe for RT-PCR assay. We further evaluated concordance of our assay with commonly used EUA (USFDA) manual kits as well as an automated high throughput testing platform. Further, a retrospective analysis using Viroselect on samples reported as ‘inconclusive’ during April-October 2020 was carried out. Results A total of 701 samples were tested. Concordance analysis of 477 samples demonstrated high overall agreement of Viroselect assay with both manual (87.6%; 95% CI) as well as automated (84.7%; 95% CI) testing assays. Also, in the retrospective analysis of 224 additional samples reported as ‘inconclusive’, Viroselect was able to resolve 100% (19/19) and 93.7% (192/205) samples which were termed inconclusive by manual and automated high throughput platform respectively. Conclusion We show that Viroselect had high concordance with conventional assays, both manual and automated, as well as highlight its potential in resolving inconclusive samples.

Immune cell dysregulation and lymphopenia characterize COVID-19 pathology in moderate to severe disease. While underlying inflammatory factors have been extensively studied, homeostatic and mucosal migratory signatures remain largely unexplored as causative factors. In this study we evaluated the association of circulating IL-6, soluble mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule (sMAdCAM) and IL-15 with cellular dysfunction characterizing mild and hypoxemic stages of COVID-19. A cohort of SARS-CoV-2 infected individuals (n=125) at various stages of disease progression together with healthy controls (n=16) were recruited from COVID Care Centres (CCCs) across Mumbai, India. Multiparametric flow cytometry was used to perform in-depth immune subset characterization and to measure plasma IL-6 levels. sMAdCAM, IL-15 levels were quantified using ELISA. Distinct depletion profiles, with relative sparing of CD8 effector memory and CD4+ regulatory T cells was observed in hypoxemic disease within the lymphocyte compartment. An apparent increase in the frequency of intermediate monocytes characterized both mild as well as hypoxemic disease. IL-6 levels inversely correlated with those of sMAdCAM and both markers showed converse associations with observed lympho-depletion suggesting opposing roles in pathogenesis. Interestingly, IL-15, a key cytokine involved in lymphocyte activation and homeostasis, was detected in symptomatic individuals but not in healthy controls or asymptomatic cases. Further, negative association of plasma IL-15 with depleted T, B and NK subsets suggested a compensatory production of this cytokine in response to the profound lymphopenia. Finally, higher levels of plasma IL-15 and IL-6, but not sMAdCAM, were associated with longer duration of hospitalization.

Accurate and sensitive approaches to detect HIV-1 drug resistance mutations (DRMs) are indispensable for the paradigm of treatment as prevention. While HIV-1 proviral DNA allows sensitive high throughput sequencing (HTS)-based DRM detection, its applicability is limited by presence of defective genomes. This study demonstrates application of quasispecies reconstruction algorithms (QRAs) to improve DRM detection sensitivity from proviral DNA. A robust benchmarking of 5 QRAs was performed with 2 distinct experimental control-datasets including a stringent, novel control: DCPM, simulating in-vivo variant distribution (0.08%-86.5%). Selected QRA was further evaluated for its ability to differentiate DRMs from hypermutated sequences using an in-silico control. PredictHaplo outperformed all others in terms of precision and was selected for further analysis. Near full-genome HTS was performed on proviral DNA from 20 HIV-1C infected individuals, at different stages of ART, from Mumbai, India. DRM detection was performed through residue-wise variation analysis and implementation of QRAs. Both analyses were highly concordant for DRM frequencies >10% (spearman r=0.91, p<0.0001). Phylogenetic association in HTS datasets with shared transmission history could also be demonstrated by PredictHaplo. This study highlights utility of QRAs as an adjunct to traditional residue-wise variation-based DRM detection leading to optimal personalized ART as well as better disease management.