Retinal mitochondria become dysfunctional and their DNA (mtDNA) is damaged in diabetes. Biogenesis of mitochondria DNA is tightly controlled by nuclear-mitochondrial transcriptional factors, and translocation of transcription factor A (TFAM) to the mitochondria is essential for transcription and replication. Our aim is to investigate the effect of diabetes on nuclear-mitochondrial communication in the retina, and its role in the development of retinopathy. Damage of mtDNA, copy number and biogenesis (PGC1, NRF1, TFAM) were analyzed in the retina from streptozotocin-diabetic wildtype (WT) and MnSOD transgenic (Tg) mice. Binding between TFAM and chaperone Hsp70 was quantified by co-immunoprecipitation. The key parameters were confirmed in isolated retinal endothelial cells, and in the retina from human donors with diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes in WT mice increased retinal mtDNA damage, and decreased copy number. The gene transcripts of PGC1, NRF1 and TFAM were increased, but mitochondrial accumulation of TFAM was significantly decreased, and the binding of Hsp70 and TFAM was subnormal compared to WT-non diabetic mice. However, Tg-diabetic mice were protected from retinal mtDNA damage, and alterations in mitochondrial biogenesis. In retinal endothelial cells, high glucose decreased the number of mitochondria, as demonstrated by MitoTracker green staining and by electron microscopy, and impaired the transcriptional factors. Similar alterations in biogenesis were observed in the donors with diabetic retinopathy. Thus, retinal mitochondria biogenesis is under the control of superoxide radicals, and is impaired in diabetes, possibly by decreased transport of TFAM to the mitochondria. Modulation of biogenesis by pharmaceutical or molecular means may provide a potential strategy to retard the development/progression of diabetic retinopathy.

Continued hypermethylation of the CpG sites at the regulatory region of POLG affects its binding to the mtDNA, compromising the transcriptional activity. Modulation of DNA methylation using pharmaceutic or molecular means could help maintain mitochondria homeostasis, and prevent further progression of diabetic retinopathy.

Aim: In the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy, retinal mitochondria are damaged, superoxide levels are elevated, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) biogenesis is impaired. mtDNA has a noncoding region, displacement loop (D-loop), which has essential transcription and replication elements, and this region is highly vulnerable to oxidative damage. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of diabetes on the D-loop damage and the mtDNA replication machinery. Results: Using retina from wild-type (WT) and mitochondrial superoxide dismutase transgenic (Tg) mice, we have investigated the effect of diabetes on retinal D-loop damage and on the replication system. The results were confirmed in the isolated retinal endothelial cells in which the DNA polymerase gamma 1 (POLG1) function was genetically manipulated. Diabetes damaged retinal mtDNA, and the damage was more at the D-loop region compared with the cytochrome B region. Gene transcripts and mitochondrial accumulation of POLG1, POLG2, and mtDNA helicase, the enzymes that form replisome to bind/ unwind and extend mtDNA, were also decreased in WT-diabetic mice compared with WT-normal mice. Tgdiabetic mice were protected from diabetes-induced damage to the D-loop region. Overexpression of POLG1 prevented high glucose-induced D-loop damage. This was accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial superoxide levels. Innovation and Conclusions: Integrity of the retinal D-loop region and the mtDNA replication play important roles in the mtDNA damage experienced by the retina in diabetes, and these are under the control of superoxide. Thus, the regulation of mtDNA replication/repair machinery has the potential to prevent mitochondrial dysfunction and the development of diabetic retinopathy. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 17, 492-504.