The capacitance mechanisms of magnetite ͑Fe 3 O 4 ͒ electrochemical capacitor in Na 2 SO 3 , Na 2 SO 4 , and KOH aqueous solutions have been investigated by electrochemical quartz-crystal microbalance analysis, along with cyclic voltammetry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The oxide thin-film electrode was prepared by an electroplating method, and exhibits a capacitance of ϳ170, 25, and 3 F/g in 1.0 M Na 2 SO 3 ͑aq͒, Na 2 SO 4 ͑aq͒, and KOH͑aq͒, respectively. Strong specific adsorption of the anion species was evidenced in all solutions. Experimental results indicate that, in Na 2 SO 3 ͑aq͒, the capacitive current of magnetite electrode originates from the combination of electric double-layer capacitance ͑EDLC͒ and the pseudocapacitance that involves successive reduction of the specifically adsorbed sulfite anions, from SO 3 2− through, e.g., S 2− , and vice versa. In Na 2 SO 4 ͑aq͒, the current is due entirely to EDLC. Furthermore, due to the specific adsorption behavior, magnetite exhibits high EDLC, Ͼ30 F/cm 2 , in both Na 2 SO 3 and Na 2 SO 4 solutions. The lowest capacitance of magnetite was observed in KOH, which is attributed to the formation of an insulating layer on the magnetite surface.Electrical double-layer capacitance ͑EDLC͒ arises from the potential dependence of the surface density of charges stored electrostatically ͑i.e., nonfaradaically͒ at the interfaces of capacitor electrodes. 1-4 EDLC electrochemical capacitors are complemented by capacitors based on the so-called pseudocapacitance, which involves faradaic reactions but behaves like a capacitor rather than a galvanic cell. [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] While EDLC typically has a specific capacitance in the order of 10 F/cm 2 of true surface area of the electrode material, pseudocapacitance often has a value that is 10 to 100 times greater.The most widely studied pseudocapacitive material is hydrous RuO 2 . 5-9 The pseudocapacitance of this material is known to arise from successive multielectron transfer at Ru cation sites, from, e.g., Ru 2+ to Ru 3+ and then to Ru 4+ , balanced by conversion of the OH − site to the O 2− sites in the oxide structure by proton transfer. There is a continuously variable degree of oxidation/reduction, leading to the capacitor behavior. Because RuO 2 is very expensive, searching for cheaper pseudocapacitive electrode materials has been a major subject in the research on electrochemical capacitors. Goodenough et al. 10,11 reported in 1999 the observation of pseudocapacitance on hydrous MnO 2 . Its mechanism was suggested to involve multielectron transfer at Mn cation sites, balanced by intercalation/extraction of cations within the oxide structure.An aqueous Fe 3 O 4 ͑magnetite͒ electrochemical capacitor is another emerging inexpensive system. 12-16 Large capacitances have been reported in alkali sulfites and sulfate solutions. In particular, the capacitance of the oxide was found to be sensitive to the anion species but not to either alkaline cations or electrolyte pH ͑ഛ11͒. These behaviors sugge...

After endocytosis, transmembrane cargo reaches endosomes, where it encounters complexes dedicated to opposing functions: recycling and degradation. Microdomains containing endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT)-0 component Hrs [hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (HGRS-1) in Caenorhabditis elegans] mediate cargo degradation, concentrating ubiquitinated cargo and organizing the activities of ESCRT. At the same time, retromer associated sorting nexin one (SNX-1) and its binding partner, J-domain protein RME-8, sort cargo away from degradation, promoting cargo recycling to the Golgi. Thus, we hypothesized that there could be important regulatory interactions between retromer and ESCRT that balance degradative and recycling functions. Taking advantage of the naturally large endosomes of the C. elegans coelomocyte, we visualized complementary ESCRT-0 and RME-8/SNX-1 microdomains in vivo and assayed the ability of retromer and ESCRT microdomains to regulate one another. We found in snx-1(0) and rme-8(ts) mutants increased endosomal coverage and intensity of HGRS-1-labeled microdomains, as well as increased total levels of HGRS-1 bound to membranes. These effects are specific to SNX-1 and RME-8, as loss of other retromer components SNX-3 and vacuolar protein sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS-35) did not affect HGRS-1 microdomains. Additionally, knockdown of hgrs-1 had little to no effect on SNX-1 and RME-8 microdomains, suggesting directionality to the interaction. Separation of the functionally distinct ESCRT-0 and SNX-1/RME-8 microdomains was also compromised in the absence of RME-8 and SNX-1, a phenomenon we observed to be conserved, as depletion of Snx1 and Snx2 in HeLa cells also led to greater overlap of Rme-8 and Hrs on endosomes.endosome | SNX-1 | RME-8 | Hrs | clathrin

Unprecedented heatwave-drought concurrences in the past two decades have been reported over inner East Asia. Tree-ring–based reconstructions of heatwaves and soil moisture for the past 260 years reveal an abrupt shift to hotter and drier climate over this region. Enhanced land-atmosphere coupling, associated with persistent soil moisture deficit, appears to intensify surface warming and anticyclonic circulation anomalies, fueling heatwaves that exacerbate soil drying. Our analysis demonstrates that the magnitude of the warm and dry anomalies compounding in the recent two decades is unprecedented over the quarter of a millennium, and this trend clearly exceeds the natural variability range. The “hockey stick”–like change warns that the warming and drying concurrence is potentially irreversible beyond a tipping point in the East Asian climate system.

Western Nepal has experienced consecutive and worsening winter drought conditions since 2000, culminating in a severe drought episode during 2008/09. In this study, the meteorological conditions and a historical perspective of the winter droughts in western Nepal were analyzed using instrumental records, satellite observations, and climate model simulations. Meteorological diagnosis using atmospheric reanalysis revealed that 1) winter drought in western Nepal is linked to the Arctic Oscillation and its decadal variability, which initiates a tropospheric short-wave train across Eurasia and South Asia; and that 2) the persistent warming of the Indian Ocean likely contributes to the suppression of rainfall through enhanced local Hadley circulation. Simulations from the phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) sets of historical single-forcing experiments indicated that the increased loading of anthropogenic aerosols is also a compounding factor in the precipitation decline during the later decades. It is therefore conceivable that the recent spells of decadal drought in Nepal are symptomatic of both natural variability and anthropogenic influences. Given the observations that winter precipitation has declined to near zero while groundwater has hardly been replenished, appropriate management of western Nepal's water resources is both critical and necessary.

Recent incidences of mass livestock mortality, known as dzud, have called into question the sustainability of pastoral nomadic herding, the cornerstone of Mongolian culture. A total of 20 million head of livestock perished in the mortality events of 2000-2002, and 2009-2010. To mitigate the effects of such events on the lives of herders, international agencies such as the World Bank are taking increasing interest in developing tailored market-based solutions like index-insurance. Their ultimate success depends on understanding the historical context and underlying causes of mortality. In this paper we examine mortality in 21 Mongolian aimags (provinces) between 1955 and 2013 in order to explain its density independent cause(s) related to climate variability. We show that livestock mortality is most strongly linked to winter (November-February) temperatures, with incidences of mass mortality being most likely to occur because of an anomalously cold winter. Additionally, we find prior summer (July-September) drought and precipitation deficit to be important triggers for mortality that intensifies the effect of upcoming winter temperatures on livestock. Our density independent mortality model based on winter temperature, summer drought, summer precipitation, and summer potential evaporanspiration explains 48.4% of the total variability in the mortality dataset. The Mongolian index based livestock insurance program uses a threshold of 6% mortality to trigger payouts. We find that on average for Mongolia, the probability of exceedance of 6% mortality in any given year is 26% over the 59 year period between 1955 and 2013.

We present evidence that the de‐trended, boreal winter sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) in the western North Pacific (WNP) are a skillful predictor for the development of the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) by the following winter. The WNP shares some similarities with the Meridional Mode (MM) located in the subtropical central and eastern North Pacific: both are linked to off‐equatorial SSTA and low‐level wind anomalies, and both appear to be strongly related to wintertime variability in the North Pacific Oscillation (NPO). However, in contrast with the MM, the WNP is associated with an opposite‐signed SSTA dipole located off southeastern Asia and in the western tropical Pacific, which is accompanied by equatorial winds that may influence the level of oceanic Kelvin wave activity that precedes ENSO events.

We evaluated the precipitation climatology of the Intermountain Region (IR) as generated by the six regional climate models of the North American Regional Climate Change Assessment Program (NARCCAP). A complex combination of the precipitation annual and semiannual cycles with their different phases form four major climate regimes over the IR. Each model produces systematic biases in the central IR where these different climate regimes meet. The simulated annual cycles are universally too strong, and the winter precipitation is too large. On the other hand, the semiannual cycles are relatively well produced. The strong annual cycles and the excess winter precipitation obscure the signals of spring/summer precipitation and may have led to false signals of the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) found in the central IR. Therefore, caution is advised when interpreting the simulated NARCCAP precipitation for the IR.

Previous studies have indicated a widespread decline in snowpack over Utah accompanied by a decline in the snow-precipitation ratio while anecdotal evidence claims have been put forward that measured changes in Utah's snowpack are spurious and do not reflect actual change. Using two distinct lines of investigation, this paper further analyzes the winter precipitation regime in the state of Utah. First, by means of observationbased, gridded daily temperature, precipitation, and remotely sensed data, as well as utilizing a climatological rain-snow threshold (RST) temperature method, the precipitation regime of Utah was scrutinized. Second, a comprehensive synoptic analysis was conducted as an alternate means that is independent from surface observations. It was found that the proportion of winter (January-March) precipitation falling as snow has decreased by 9% during the last half century, a combined result from a significant increase in rainfall and a minor decrease in snowfall. Meanwhile, observed snow depth across Utah has decreased and is accompanied by consistent decreases in snow cover and surface albedo. Weather systems with the potential to produce precipitation in Utah have decreased in number with those producing snowfall decreasing at a considerably greater rate. Further circulation analysis showed that an anomalous anticyclone has developed over western North America, which acts to reduce the frequency of cyclone waves impacting Utah. Combined with the increased precipitation, this feature suggests that the average precipitation per event has intensified with more of it falling as rain than as snow. Trends in the hydroclimate such as these have implications for present and future regional water policy in the state of Utah.