Many fish encounter hypoxia in their native environment, but the role of mitochondrial physiology in hypoxia acclimation and hypoxia tolerance is poorly understood. We investigated the effects of hypoxia acclimation on mitochondrial respiration, O 2 kinetics, emission of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and antioxidant capacity in the estuarine killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus). Killifish were acclimated to normoxia, constant hypoxia (5 kPa O 2 ) or intermittent diel cycles of nocturnal hypoxia (12 h:12 h normoxia: hypoxia) for 28-33 days and mitochondria were isolated from liver. Neither pattern of hypoxia acclimation affected the respiratory capacities for oxidative phosphorylation or electron transport, leak respiration, coupling control or phosphorylation efficiency. Hypoxia acclimation also had no effect on mitochondrial O 2 kinetics, but P 50 (the O 2 tension at which hypoxia inhibits respiration by 50%) was lower in the leak state than during maximal respiration, and killifish mitochondria endured anoxia-reoxygenation without any impact on mitochondrial respiration. However, both patterns of hypoxia acclimation reduced the rate of ROS emission from mitochondria when compared at a common O 2 tension. Hypoxia acclimation also increased the levels of protein carbonyls and the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase in liver tissue (the latter only occurred in constant hypoxia). Our results suggest that hypoxia acclimation is associated with changes in mitochondrial physiology that decrease ROS production and may help improve hypoxia tolerance.

Municipal wastewater effluent is a major source of aquatic pollution and has potential to impact cellular energy metabolism. However, it is poorly understood whether wastewater exposure impacts whole-animal metabolism and whether this can be accommodated with adjustments in respiratory physiology. We caged bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) for 21 days at two sites downstream (either 50 or 830 m) from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Survival was reduced in fish caged at both downstream sites compared to an uncontaminated reference site. Standard rates of O consumption increased in fish at contaminated sites, reflecting a metabolic cost of wastewater exposure. Several physiological adjustments accompanied this metabolic cost, including an expansion of the gill surface area available for gas exchange (reduced interlamellar cell mass), a decreased blood-O affinity (which likely facilitates O unloading at respiring tissues), increased respiratory capacities for oxidative phosphorylation in isolated liver mitochondria (supported by increased succinate dehydrogenase, but not citrate synthase, activity), and decreased mitochondrial emission of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We conclude that exposure to wastewater effluent invokes a metabolic cost that leads to compensatory respiratory improvements in O uptake, delivery, and utilization.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been suggested to be possible mechanisms underlying hybrid breakdown, as a result of mito-nuclear incompatibilities in respiratory complexes of the electron transport system. However, it remains unclear whether hybridization increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mitochondria. We used high-resolution respirometry and fluorometry on isolated liver mitochondria to examine mitochondrial physiology and ROS emission in naturally occurring hybrids of pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) and bluegill (L. macrochirus). ROS emission was greater in hybrids than in both parent species when respiration was supported by complex I (but not complex II) substrates, and was associated with increases in lipid peroxidation. However, respiratory capacities for oxidative phosphorylation, phosphorylation efficiency, and O kinetics in hybrids were intermediate between those in parental species. Flux control ratios of capacities for electron transport (measured in uncoupled mitochondria) relative to oxidative phosphorylation suggested that the limiting influence of the phosphorylation system is reduced in hybrids. This likely helped offset impairments in electron transport capacity and complex III activity, but contributed to augmenting ROS production. Therefore, hybridization can increase mitochondrial ROS production, in support of previous suggestions that mitochondrial dysfunction can induce oxidative stress and thus contribute to hybrid breakdown.

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Failure is hard‐wired into the scientific method and yet teaching students to productively engage with failure is not foundational in most biology curricula. To train successful scientists, it is imperative that we teach undergraduate science students to be less fearful of failure and to instead positively accept it as a productive part of the scientific process. In this article, we focus on student perceptions of the stigma of failure and their associated concerns to explore how failure could be better supported within and beyond a university context. Through a survey of first‐year biology students, we found that societal and familial pressures to succeed were the greatest contributing factors to students' fear of failure. In student suggestions on how to reduce the stigma of failure within and beyond the university context, the most common theme identified across both contexts was for increased discussion and open communication about experiences of failure. Importantly, student comments in this study bring attention to the role of factors beyond the classroom in shaping student experiences of failure within their biology courses.

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