The phase II metabolism sulfation and glucuronidation, mediated by sulfotransferases (SULTs) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) respectively, are significant metabolic pathways for numerous endo- and xenobiotics. Understanding of SULT/UGT substrate specificity (including regioselectivity (i.e., position preference)) is of great importance in predicting contribution of sulfation/glucuronidation to drug and metabolite disposition in vivo. This review summarizes regioselective sulfation and glucuronidation of phenolic compounds with multiple hydroxyl (OH) groups as the potential conjugation sites. The strict regioselective patterns were highlighted for several SULT and UGT isoforms towards flavonoids, a large class of natural polyphenols. To seek for a molecular-level explanation, the enzyme structures (i.e., SULT crystal structures and homology-based UGT structure models) combined with molecular docking was employed. In particular, the structural bases for regioselective metabolism of flavonoids by SULT1A3 and UGT1A1 were discussed. It was concluded that the regioselective nature of these phase II enzymes was determined by the size and shape of binding pocket. While the molecular structures of the enzymes can be used to explain regioselective metabolism regarding the binding property, predicting the turnover at different positions remains a particularly difficult task.
Flavonoids are the polyphenolic compounds with various claimed health benefits, but the extensive metabolism by uridine-5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) and sulfotransferases (SULTs) in liver and intestine led to poor oral bioavailabilities. The effects of structural changes on the sulfonation of flavonoids have not been systemically determined, although relevant effects of structural changes on the glucuronidation of flavonoids had. We performed the regiospecific sulfonation of sixteen flavonoids from five different subclasses of flavonoids, which are represented by apigenin (flavone), genistein (isoflavone), naringenin (flavanone), kaempherol (flavonol), and phloretin (chalcone). Additional studies were performed using 4 mono-hydroxyl flavonoids with –OH group at 3, 4’, 5 or 7 position, followed by 5 di-hydroxyl-flavonoids, and 2 tri-hydroxyl flavonoids by using expressed human SULT1A3 and Caco-2 cell lysates. We found that these compounds were exclusively sulfated at the 7-OH position by SULT1A3 and primarily sulfated at 7-OH position in Caco-2 cell lysates with minor amounts of 4’-O-sulfates formed as well. Sulfonation rates measured using SULT1A3 and Caco-2 cell lysates were highly correlated at substrate concentrations of 2.5 and 10 µM. Molecular docking studies provided structural explanations as to why sulfonation only occurred at the 7-OH position of flavones, flavonols and flavanones. In conclusion, molecular docking studies explain why SULT1A3 exclusively mediates sulfonation at the 7-OH position of flavones/flavonols, and correlation studies indicate that SULT1A3 is the main isoform responsible for flavonoid sulfonation in the Caco-2 cells.
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