Maintaining the redox balance between generation and elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is critical for health. Disturbances such as continuously elevated ROS levels will result in oxidative stress and development of disease, but likewise, insufficient ROS production will be detrimental to health. Reduced or even complete loss of ROS generation originates mainly from inactivating variants in genes encoding for NADPH oxidase complexes. In particular, deficiency in phagocyte Nox2 oxidase function due to genetic variants (CYBB, CYBA, NCF1, NCF2, NCF4) has been recognized as a direct cause of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD), an inherited immune disorder. More recently, additional diseases have been linked to functionally altered variants in genes encoding for other NADPH oxidases, such as for DUOX2/DUOXA2 in congenital hypothyroidism, or for the Nox2 complex, NOX1 and DUOX2 as risk factors for inflammatory bowel disease. A comprehensive overview of novel developments in terms of Nox/Duox-deficiency disorders is presented, combined with insights gained from structure–function studies that will aid in predicting functional defects of clinical variants.

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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by NADPH oxidases (NOX/DUOX) provide antimicrobial defense, redox signaling, and gut barrier maintenance. Inactivating NOX variants are associated with comorbid intestinal inflammation in chronic granulomatous disease (CGD; NOX2) and pediatric inflammatory bowel disease (IBD; NOX1); however Nox-deficient mice do not reflect human disease susceptibility. Here we assessed if a hypomorphic patient-relevant CGD mutation will increase the risk for intestinal inflammation in mice. Cyba (p22 phox) mutant mice generated low intestinal ROS, while maintaining Nox4 function. The Cyba variant caused profound mucus layer disruption with bacterial penetration into crypts, dysbiosis, and a compromised innate immune response to invading microbes, leading to mortality. Approaches used in treatment-resistant CGD or pediatric IBD such as bone marrow transplantation or oral antibiotic treatment ameliorated or prevented disease in mice. The Cyba mutant mouse phenotype implicates loss of both mucus barrier and efficient innate immune defense in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation due to ROS deficiency, supporting a combined-hit model where a single disease variant compromises different cellular functions in interdependent compartments.

Protein-protein interactions critically regulate many biological systems, but quantifying functional assembly of multipass membrane complexes in their native context is still challenging. Here, we combined modeling-assisted protein modification and information from human disease variants with a minimal-size fusion tag, split-luciferase-based approach to probe assembly of the NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4)-p22 enzyme, an integral membrane complex with unresolved structure, which is required for electron transfer and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Integrated analyses of heterodimerization, trafficking, and catalytic activity identified determinants for the NOX4-p22 interaction, such as heme incorporation into NOX4 and hot spot residues in transmembrane domains 1 and 4 in p22 Moreover, their effect on NOX4 maturation and ROS generation was analyzed. We propose that this reversible and quantitative protein-protein interaction technique with its small split-fragment approach will provide a protein engineering and discovery tool not only for NOX research, but also for other intricate membrane protein complexes, and may thereby facilitate new drug discovery strategies for managing NOX-associated diseases.

Rat alveolar macrophages separated into four isopycnic fractions on Percoll gradients were functionally heterogeneous in bacterial phagocytosis, intracellular killing, superoxide anion release, and lysosomal enzyme activity but not in hydrogen peroxide release. With increasing alveolar macrophage density, phagocytosis, intracellular killing, superoxide anion release, and lysozyme activity increase, and acid hydrolase activity decreases.

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An alveolar macrophage-activating factor was released from Percoll fractionated large granular lymphocytes (LGL) within minutes of contact with either the natural killer (NK)-sensitive K562 tumor or heat-killed Staphylococcus aureus. The factor enhanced the intracellular killing of S. aureus without altering the rate of phagocytosis. Factor release was blocked by treatment of LGL with monensin, a carboxylic ionophore that inhibits vesicular traffic, but was unaffected by actinomycin D and cycloheximide pretreatment, suggesting that the cytokine was performed. The cell producing the factor was found only in Percoll fractions containing high concentrations of lytic NK cells and LGL, and the phenotypes of the LGL were HNK-1+ and E rosette-. The macrophage activating factor was a small protein of 10,000 to 20,000 daltons, as determined by gel fractionation, and was sensitive to proteolytic enzymes and heat and pH labile. Active supernatants were devoid of antiviral (interferon; IFN) or interleukin 2 (IL 2) activity, and IFN-beta, IFN-gamma, IL 2, and interleukin 1 were unable to activate staphylococcidal activity, suggesting that the LGL macrophage activating factor was distinguishable from these cytokines.