The effects of constant time delay, observational learning opportunities, and differential attentional cuing were examined during the small-group instruction of students in an integrated setting. Three students, one individual with moderate mental retardation and two individuals characterized as at-risk learners, participated in learning sight words through direct instruction and observational-learning conditions. A multiple probe design across three students was combined with a multitreatment design across treatment conditions to assess the impact of instructional variables. Reliability of scoring and procedural integrity were estimated and social validity of outcomes was considered. Findings support the salience of the constant time delay procedure in facilitating word acquisition in small, heterogeneous, and inclusive group learning arrangements. Further, a significant amount of learning through observation occurred for all students under both a general and specific attentional cue condition. A slight but discernible advantage of using the specific cuing strategy of transcribing target and nontarget words was realized.
Observational learning is theoretically conceptualized as a skill that can be developed along a learning hierarchy from acquisition and fluency to generalization of initiative behavior. This review characterizes these levels of observational learning and details differential teaching strategies that have been endeavored at each level. The hierarchy can assist the teacher in determining the status of a student's observational learning skills, in recognizing essential instructional components in planning, and in organizing instruction to systematically enhance the student's ability to acquire more complex observational skills.
The effectiveness and efficiency of two prompt-fading procedures were compared during the instruction of two self-help skills to four pairs of developmentally delayed preschoolers. In addition, the effect of observational learning was examined. Within a combined multiple probe and parallel treatments design, one member of each pair received direct instruction on the two skills. One skill was taught using an increasing assistance prompting procedure and the other skill was taught using a constant time delay procedure. The other member of the pair was prompted to observe the instruction, but was not taught directly. Reliability of scoring and procedural integrity were estimated, and social validity of outcomes considered. Findings indicated a slight but discernible advantage of using the time delay procedure rather than the increasing assistance procedure to teach complex, chained-response tasks. Further, considerable learning resulted solely from the observation of instruction.
Utilizing four pairs of preschoolers with Down's Syndrome, the efficacy of two prompt fading procedures was compared during instruction of two self-help skills. In addition, the efficacy of observational learning was examined. Within a modified multiple baseline and multi-element design, one member of each pair received direct instruction on two skills. One skill was taught using a decreasing assistance prompting procedure, the other using a graduated guidance procedure. The other child was prompted to observe instruction, but not taught directly. Procedure and task were counter-balanced, the reliability of scoring and the social validity of outcomes were estimated, and the integrity of procedural implementation was examined. Results indicate that both procedures were effective in increasing the target behaviors. Surprisingly, children who only observed also acquired both tasks. Results generalized across assessors and were maintained across time. Implications for instructional planning for individuals who are mentally retarded are discussed.
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