Most animal studies using passive administration of HIV broadly neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (bnMAbs) have associated protection against high-dose mucosal viral challenge with relatively high serum concentrations of antibody. We recently identified several bnMAbs remarkable for their in vitro potency against HIV. Of these bnMAbs, PGT121 is one of the most broad and potent antibodies isolated to date and shows 10-to 100-fold higher neutralizing activity than previously characterized bnMAbs. To evaluate the protective potency of PGT121 in vivo, we performed a protection study in rhesus macaques. Animals were i.v. administered 5 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg, or 0.2 mg/kg PGT121 24 h before being vaginally challenged with a single high dose of chimeric simianhuman immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) SF162P3 . Sterilizing immunity was achieved in all animals administered 5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg and three of five animals administered 0.2 mg/kg PGT121, with corresponding average antibody serum concentrations of 95 μg/mL, 15 μg/mL, and 1.8 μg/mL, respectively. The results suggest that a protective serum concentration for PGT121 is in the single-digit μg/mL for SHIV SF162P3 , showing that PGT121 can mediate sterilizing immunity at serum concentrations that are significantly lower than those observed in previous studies and that may be achievable through vaccination with the development of a suitable immunogen.passive transfer | animal model | antibody prophylaxis

"Elite controllers" are individuals that durably control human immunodeficiency virus or simian immunodeficiency virus replication without therapeutic intervention. The study of these rare individuals may facilitate the definition of a successful immune response to immunodeficiency viruses. Here we describe six Indian-origin rhesus macaques that have controlled replication of the pathogenic virus SIVmac239 for 1 to 5 years. To determine which lymphocyte populations were responsible for this control, we transiently depleted the animals' CD8 ؉ cells in vivo. This treatment resulted in 100-to 10,000-fold increases in viremia. When the CD8 ؉ cells returned, control was reestablished and the levels of small subsets of previously subdominant CD8 ؉ T cells expanded up to 2,500-fold above predepletion levels. This wave of CD8 ؉ T cells was accompanied by robust Gag-specific CD4 responses. In contrast, CD8؉ NK cell frequencies changed no more than threefold. Together, our data suggest that CD8؉ T cells targeting a small number of epitopes, along with broad CD4 ؉ T-cell responses, can successfully control the replication of the AIDS virus. It is likely that subdominant CD8 ؉ T-cell populations play a key role in maintaining this control.

The goal of an AIDS vaccine regimen designed to induce cellular immune responses should be to reduce the viral set point and preserve memory CD4 lymphocytes. Here we investigated whether vaccine-induced cellular immunity in the absence of any Env-specific antibodies can control viral replication following multiple low-dose challenges with the highly pathogenic SIVmac239 isolate. Eight Mamu-A*01-positive Indian rhesus macaques were vaccinated with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) gag, tat, rev, and nef using a DNA prime-adenovirus boost strategy. Peak viremia (P ‫؍‬ 0.007) and the chronic phase set point (P ‫؍‬ 0.0192) were significantly decreased in the vaccinated cohort, out to 1 year postinfection. Loss of CD4 ؉ memory populations was also ameliorated in vaccinated animals. Interestingly, only one of the eight vaccinees developed Env-specific neutralizing antibodies after infection. The control observed was significantly improved over that observed in animals vaccinated with SIV gag only. Vaccine-induced cellular immune responses can, therefore, exert a measure of control over replication of the AIDS virus in the complete absence of neutralizing antibody and give us hope that a vaccine designed to induce cellular immune responses might control viral replication.

An effective AIDS vaccine will need to protect against globally diverse isolates of HIV. To address this issue in macaques, we administered a live-attenuated simian immunodefi ciency virus (SIV) vaccine and challenged with a highly pathogenic heterologous isolate.

Developing a vaccine for HIV may be aided by a complete understanding of those rare cases where some HIV-infected individuals control replication of the virus1–3. The majority of these elite controllers (ECs) express HLA-B*57 or HLA-B*273. These alleles remain by far the most robust associations with low concentrations of plasma virus4,5, yet the mechanism of control in these individuals is not entirely clear. Here we vaccinated Indian rhesus macaques that express Mamu-B*08, an animal model for HLA-B*27-mediated elite control6, with three Mamu-B*08-restricted CD8+ T cell epitopes and demonstrate that these vaccinated animals controlled replication of the highly pathogenic SIVmac239 clonal virus. High frequencies of CD8+ T cells against these Vif and Nef epitopes in the blood, lymph nodes and colon, were associated with viral control. Moreover, the frequency of the Nef RL10-specific response correlated significantly with reduced acute phase viremia. Finally, two of the eight vaccinees lost control of viral replication in the chronic phase, concomitant with escape in all three targeted epitopes, further implicating these three CD8+ T cell responses in control of viral replication. Our findings indicate that narrowly targeted vaccine-induced virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses can control replication of the AIDS virus.

Vaccinees mounted high-frequency T-cell responses against 11 to 34 epitopes. We challenged the vaccinees and eight naïve animals with the heterologous biological isolate SIVsmE660, using a regimen intended to mimic typical HIV exposures resulting in infection. Viral loads in the vaccinees were significantly less at both the peak (1.9-log reduction; P < 0.03) and at the set point (2.6-log reduction; P < 0.006) than those in control naïve animals. Five of eight vaccinated macaques controlled acute peak viral replication to less than 80,000 viral RNA (vRNA) copy eq/ml and to less than 100 vRNA copy eq/ml in the chronic phase. Our results demonstrate that broad vaccine-induced cellular immune responses can effectively control replication of a pathogenic, heterologous AIDS virus, suggesting that T-cell-based vaccines may have greater potential than previously appreciated.

HLA-B27- and -B57-positive HIV-infected humans have long been associated with control of HIV replication, implying that CD8+ T cell responses contribute to control of viral replication. In a similar fashion, 50% of Mamu-B*08-positive Indian rhesus macaques control SIVmac239 replication and become elite controllers with chronic-phase viremia &lt;1000 viral RNA copies/ml. Interestingly, Mamu-B*08-restricted SIV-derived epitopes appeared to match the peptide binding profile for HLA-B*2705 in humans. We therefore defined a detailed peptide-binding motif for Mamu-B*08 and investigated binding similarities between the macaque and human MHC class I molecules. Analysis of a panel of ∼900 peptides revealed that despite substantial sequence differences between Mamu-B*08 and HLA-B*2705, the peptide-binding repertoires of these two MHC class I molecules share a remarkable degree of overlap. Detailed knowledge of the Mamu-B*08 peptide-binding motif enabled us to identify six additional novel Mamu-B*08-restricted SIV-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses directed against epitopes in Gag, Vpr, and Env. All 13 Mamu-B*08-restricted epitopes contain an R at the position 2 primary anchor and 10 also possess either R or K at the N terminus. Such dibasic peptides are less prone to cellular degradation. This work highlights the relevance of the Mamu-B*08-positive SIV-infected Indian rhesus macaque as a model to examine elite control of immunodeficiency virus replication. The remarkable similarity of the peptide-binding motifs and repertoires for Mamu-B*08 and HLA-B*2705 suggests that the nature of the peptide bound by the MHC class I molecule may play an important role in control of immunodeficiency virus replication.

Certain major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I alleles are strongly associated with control of human immunodeficiency virus and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). CD8؉ T cells specific for epitopes restricted by these molecules may be particularly effective.