This study investigated the structure of working memory in young school-age children by testing the fit of three competing theoretical models using a wide variety of tasks. The best fitting models were then used to assess the relationship between working memory and nonverbal measures of fluid reasoning (Gf) and visual processing (Gv) intelligence. One hundred sixty-eight English-speaking 7–9 year olds with typical development, from three states, participated. Results showed that Cowan’s three-factor embedded processes model fit the data slightly better than Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) three-factor model (specified according to Baddeley, 1986) and decisively better than Baddeley’s (2000) four-factor model that included an episodic buffer. The focus of attention factor in Cowan’s model was a significant predictor of Gf and Gv. The results suggest that the focus of attention, rather than storage, drives the relationship between working memory, Gf, and Gv in young school-age children. Our results do not rule out the Baddeley and Hitch model, but they place constraints on both it and Cowan’s model. A common attentional component is needed for feature binding, running digit span, and visual short-term memory tasks; phonological storage is separate, as is a component of central executive processing involved in task manipulation. The results contribute to a zeitgeist in which working memory models are coming together on common ground (cf. Cowan, Saults, & Blume, 2014; Hu, Allen, Baddeley, & Hitch, 2016).
Reliabilities of scores for experimental tasks are likely to differ from one study to another to the extent that the task stimuli change, the number of trials varies, the type of individuals taking the task changes, the administration conditions are altered, or the focal task variable differs. Given reliabilities vary as a function of the design of these tasks and the characteristics of the individuals taking them, making inferences about the reliability of scores in an ongoing study based on reliability estimates from prior studies is precarious. Thus, it would be advantageous to estimate reliability based on data from the ongoing study. We argue that internal consistency estimates of reliability are underutilized for experimental task data and in many applications could provide this information using a single administration of a task. We discuss different methods for computing internal consistency estimates with a generalized coefficient alpha and the conditions under which these estimates are accurate. We illustrate use of these coefficients using data for three different tasks.
Purpose-This study investigated whether phonological or semantic encoding cues improved the fast mapping or word learning performance of preschoolers with specific language impairment (SLI) or typical development (TD) and whether performance varied for words containing high-or low-frequency sublexical sequences that named familiar or unfamiliar objects.Method-Forty-two preschoolers with SLI, 42 preschoolers with TD matched for age and gender to children with SLI, and 41 preschoolers with TD matched for expressive vocabulary and gender to children with SLI learned words in a supported learning context. Fast mapping, word learning, and post-task performance were assessed.Results-Encoding cues had no effect on fast mapping performance for any group, nor on the number of words children learned to comprehend. Encoding cues appeared to be detrimental to word production for children with TD. Across groups a clear learning advantage was observed for words with low-frequency sequences and to a lesser extent, words associated with an unfamiliar object. Conclusions-Resultssuggest that phonotactic probability and previous lexical knowledge affect word learning in similar ways for children with TD and SLI and that encoding cues were not beneficial for any group. A significant proportion of children with specific language impairment (SLI) have difficulty learning new words (Ellis Weismer & Hesketh, 1998;Horohov & Oetting, 2004;Kiernan & Gray, 1998;Gray, 2004Gray, , 2005Gray, , 2006Nash & Donaldson, 2005;Rice, Buhr, & Oetting, 1992;Rice, Oetting, Marquis, Bode, & Pae, 1994). This may affect other important areas of development including listening (Florit, Roch, Altoe & Levorato, 2009) and reading comprehension (Bishop & Adams, 2006;Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997;Scarborough, 2001; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). A growing body of research suggests that poor word learning by children with SLI is related to difficulty creating and storing phonological and semantic representations of new words and establishing a strong link between those representations (Alt & Plante, 2006; Gathercole, Hitch, Service & Martin, 1997;Gray, 2005;McGregor, Friedman, Reilly & Newman, 2002;Storkel, 2001Storkel, , 2003. These results are apparent in both fast mapping and slow mapping word learning studies.Fast mapping is the earliest stage of word learning when a child is exposed to a new word the first few times (Carey, 1978). Previous studies investigating children's ability to fast map Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shelley Gray, Department of Speech and Hearing Science, Arizona State University, PO Box 870102, Tempe, AZ 85287-0102. Shelley.Gray@asu.edu. NIH Public AccessAuthor Manuscript J Speech Lang Hear Res. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 June 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript a lexical label to a novel referent have shown that preschoolers with language impairment may comprehend as well as their peers with typical development (TD) in fast mapping comprehension...
In children with dyslexia, deficits in working memory have not been well-specified. We assessed second-grade children with dyslexia, with and without concomitant specific language impairment, and children with typical development. Immediate serial recall of lists of phonological (nonword), lexical (digit), spatial (location), and visual (shape) items were included. For the latter three modalities we used not only standard span but also running span tasks, in which the list length was unpredictable to limit mnemonic strategies. Nonword repetition tests indicated a phonological memory deficit in children with dyslexia alone compared to those with typical development, but this difference vanished when these groups were matched for nonverbal intelligence and language. Theoretically-important deficits in serial order memory in dyslexic children, however, persisted relative to matched typically-developing children. The deficits were in recall of (a) spoken digits in both standard and running span tasks, and (b) spatial locations, in running span only. Children with dyslexia with versus without language impairment, when matched on nonverbal intelligence, had comparable serial order memory, but differed in phonology. Because serial orderings of verbal and spatial elements occur in reading, the careful examination of order memory may allow a deeper understanding of dyslexia and its relation to language impairment.
Purpose This study investigated whether previous findings of a low phonotactic probability/unfamiliar object word learning advantage in preschoolers could be replicated, whether this advantage would be apparent at different ‘stages’ of word learning, and whether findings would differ for preschoolers with specific language impairment (SLI) and typical development (TD). Method One hundred fourteen children participated: 40 with SLI, 39 with TD matched for age and gender, and 35 with TD matched for expressive vocabulary and gender. Comprehension and production were assessed during word learning and at post-test for words that varied in phonotactic probability and object familiarity. Results Across groups, comprehension performance increased significantly from days 1–3, but there was no significant word/object type effect. Production performance increased significantly for days 1–4 for all groups and there was a clear low phonotactic probability/unfamiliar object advantage during word learning, but not at post-test. Conclusions Results help to establish that preschoolers with TD and SLI show a low phonotactic probability/unfamiliar object production advantage during word learning that is not restricted to the first few exposures to words, but continues over time. This study illustrates how the interaction of phonological characteristics in nascent and extant words can affect word learning.
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