Oxidative stress figures prominently in retinal diseases including diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma. Ligands for σ1R, a unique transmembrane protein localized to the ER, mitochondria, nuclear and plasma membrane, have profound retinal neuroprotective properties in vitro and in vivo. Studies to determine the mechanism of σ1R-mediated retinal neuroprotection have focused mainly on neurons. Little is known about effects of σ1R on Müller cell function, yet these radial glial cells are essential for homeostatic support of the retina. Here we investigated whether σ1R mediates the oxidative stress response of Müller cells using wildtype (WT) and σ1R knockout (σ1RKO) mice. We observed increased endogenous ROS levels in σ1RKO Müller cells compared to WT, which was accompanied by decreased expression of Sod1, Catalase, Nqo1, Hmox1, Gstm6 and Gpx1. The protein levels of SOD1, CAT, NQO1 and GPX1 were also significantly decreased. The genes encoding these antioxidants contain an antioxidant response element (ARE), which under stress is activated by NRF2, a transcription factor that typically resides in the cytoplasm bound by KEAP1. In the σ1RKO Müller cells Nrf2 expression was decreased significantly at the gene (and protein) level, while Keap1 gene (and protein) levels were markedly increased. NRF2-ARE binding affinity was decreased markedly in σ1RKO Müller cells. We investigated system xc−, the cystine-glutamate exchanger important for synthesis of GSH, and observed decreased function in σ1RKO Müller cells compared to WT as well as decreased GSH and GSH/GSSG ratios. This was accompanied by decreased gene and protein levels of xCT, the unique component of system xc−. We conclude that Müller glial cells lacking σ1R manifest elevated ROS, perturbation of antioxidant balance, suppression of NRF2 signaling and impaired function of system xc−. The data suggest that the oxidative stress-mediating function of retinal Müller glial cells may be compromised in the absence of σ1R. The neuroprotective role of σ1R may be linked directly to the oxidative stress-mediating properties of supportive glial cells.

Neuronal cell death contributes significantly to the pathology of traumatic brain injury (TBI) irrespective of the mode or severity of the injury. Activation of a pro-survival protein, Akt, is known to be regulated by an E3 ligase TRAF6 through a process of ubiquitination-coupled phosphorylation at its T308 residue. Here we show that upregulation of a pro-apototic protein, GADD34, attenuates TRAF6-mediated Akt activation in a controlled cortical impact model of TBI in mice. TBI induces the expression of GADD34 by stimulating binding of a stress inducible transcription factor, ATF4, to the GADD34 promoter. GADD34 then binds with TRAF6 and prevents its interaction with Akt. This event leads to retention of Akt in the cytosol and prevents phosphorylation at the T308 position. Finally, in vivo depletion of GADD34 using a lentiviral knockdown approach leads to a rescue of Akt activation and markedly attenuates TBI-induced cell death.

Mild to moderate hyperhomocysteinemia is prevalent in humans and is implicated in neurovascular diseases, including recently in certain retinal diseases. Herein, we used hyperhomocysteinemic mice deficient in the Cbs gene encoding cystathionine-β-synthase (Cbs(+/-)) to evaluate retinal vascular integrity. The Cbs(+/+) (wild type) and Cbs(+/-) (heterozygous) mice (aged 16 to 52 weeks) were subjected to fluorescein angiography and optical coherence tomography to assess vasculature in vivo. Retinas harvested for cryosectioning or flat mount preparations were subjected to immunofluorescence microscopy to detect blood vessels (isolectin-B4), angiogenesis [anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and anti-CD105], gliosis [anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)], pericytes (anti-neural/glial antigen 2), blood-retinal barrier [anti-zonula occludens protein 1 (ZO-1) and anti-occludin], and hypoxia [anti-pimonidazole hydrochloride (Hypoxyprobe-1)]. Levels of VEGF, GFAP, ZO-1, and occludin were determined by immunoblotting. Results of these analyses showed a mild vascular phenotype in young mice, which progressed with age. Fluorescein angiography revealed progressive neovascularization and vascular leakage in Cbs(+/-) mice; optical coherence tomography confirmed new vessels in the vitreous by 1 year. Immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated vascular patterns consistent with ischemia, including a capillary-free zone centrally and new vessels with capillary tufts midperipherally in older mice. This was associated with increased VEGF, CD105, and GFAP and decreased ZO-1/occludin levels in the Cbs(+/-) retinas. Retinal vein occlusion was observed in some Cbs(+/-) mouse retinas. We conclude that mild to moderate elevation of homocysteine in Cbs(+/-) mice is accompanied by progressive alterations in retinal vasculature characterized by ischemia, neovascularization, incompetent blood-retinal barrier, and vascular occlusion.

Sigma receptor 1 (σR1), a non-opiate transmembrane protein located on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondrial membranes, is considered a molecular chaperone. Marked protection against cell death has been observed when ligands for σR1 have been used in in vitro and in vivo models of retinal cell death. Mice lacking σR1 (σR1−/−) manifest late onset loss of retinal ganglion cells and retinal electrophysiological changes (after many months). The role of σR1 in retina and the mechanisms by which its ligands afford neuroprotection are unclear. To explore this we used σR1−/− mice and investigated expression of ER stress genes (BiP/GRP78, Atf6, Atf4, Ire1α) and proteins involved in apoptosis (BCL2, BAX) and examined the retinal transcriptome at young ages. While there were no significant changes in expression of major ER stress genes (over a period of a year) in neural retina, there were marked changes in these genes especially Atf6 in isolated retinal Müller glial cells. BCL2 levels decreased in σR1−/− retina concomitant with decreases in NFkB and pERK1/2. We postulate that σR1 regulates ER stress in retinal Müller cells and that the role of σR1 in retinal neuroprotection likely involves BCL2 and some of the proteins that modify its expression (such as ERK, NFκB). Data from the analysis of the retinal transcriptome of σR1 null mice provides new avenues to understand the role of σR1 in retinal neuroprotection.

Mildly hyperhomocysteinemic Mthfr+/- mice demonstrate reduced ganglion cell function, thinner NFL, and mild vasculopathy by 24 weeks. The retinal phenotype is similar to that of hyperhomocysteinemic mice with deficiency of cystathionine-β-synthase (Cbs) reported earlier. The data support the hypothesis that hyperhomocysteinemia may be causative in certain retinal neurovasculopathies.

Bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) adhesion and migration are fundamental to a number of pathophysiologic processes, including fracture and wound healing. Vitamin C is beneficial for bone formation, fracture repair and wound healing. However, the role of the vitamin C transporter in BMSC adhesion, migration and wound healing is not known. In this study, we knocked-down the sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter, SVCT2, the only known transporter of vitamin C in BMSCs, and performed cell adhesion, migration, in-vitro scratch wound healing and F-actin re-arrangement studies. We also investigated the role of oxidative stress on the above processes. Our results demonstrate that both oxidative stress and down-regulation of SVCT2 decreased cell attachment and spreading. A trans-well cell migration assay showed that vitamin C helped in BMSC migration and that knockdown of SVCT2 decreased cell migration. In the in-vitro scratch wound healing studies, we established that oxidative stress dose-dependently impairs wound healing. Furthermore, the supplementation of vitamin C significantly rescued the BMSCs from oxidative stress and increased wound closing. The knockdown of SVCT2 in BMSCs strikingly decreased wound healing, and supplementing with vitamin C failed to rescue cells efficiently. The knockdown of SVCT2 and induction of oxidative stress in cells produced an alteration in cytoskeletal dynamics. Signaling studies showed that oxidative stress phosphorylated members of the MAP kinase family (p38) and that vitamin C inhibited their phosphorylation. Taken together, these results indicate that both the SVCT2 transporter and oxidative stress play a vital role in BMSC attachment, migration and cytoskeletal re-arrangement. BMSC-based cell therapy and modulation of SVCT2 could lead to a novel therapeutic approach that enhances bone remodeling, fracture repair and wound healing in chronic disease conditions.

The purpose of this study was to extend our understanding of how aging affects normal retina function and morphology in wild-type C57BL/6J mice, by analyzing electrophysiological recordings and in vivo and post mortem anatomy. METHODS.Electroretinograms (ERGs), spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), and confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope (cSLO) in vivo images were obtained from mice between the ages of 2 and 32 months in four groups: group 1 (<0.5 years), group 2 (1.0-1.5 years), group 3 (1.5-2.0 years), and group 4 (>2.0 years). Afterward, mouse bodies and eyes were weighed. Eyes were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and cell nuclei were quantified. RESULTS.With aging, mice showed a significant reduction in both a-and b-wave ERG amplitudes in scotopic and photopic conditions. Additionally, total retina and outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness, as measured by SD-OCT images, were significantly reduced in older groups. The cSLO images showed an increase in auto-fluorescence at the photoreceptor-RPE interface as age increases. H&E cell nuclei quantification showed significant reduction in the ONL in older ages, but no differences in the inner nuclear layer (INL) or ganglion cell layer (GCL). CONCLUSIONS.By using multiple age groups and extending the upper age limit of our animals to approximately 2.65 years (P970), we found that natural aging causes negative effects on retinal function and morphology in a gradual, rather than abrupt, process. Future studies should investigate the exact mechanisms that contribute to these gradual declines in order to discover pathways that could potentially serve as therapeutic targets.

We recently demonstrated that 12/15-lipoxygenase (LOX) derived metabolites, hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs), contribute to diabetic retinopathy (DR) via NADPH oxidase (NOX) and disruption of the balance in retinal levels of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor (PEDF). Here, we test whether PEDF ameliorates retinal vascular injury induced by HETEs and the underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, we pursue the causal relationship between LOX-NOX system and regulation of PEDF expression during DR. For these purposes, we used an experimental eye model in which normal mice were injected intravitreally with 12/15HETE with/without PEDF. Thereafter, Fluorescein Angiography (FA) was used to evaluate the vascular leakage, followed by Optical coherence tomography (OCT) to assess the presence of angiogenesis. FA and OCT reported an increased vascular leakage and pre-retinal neovascularization, respectively, in response to 12-HETE that were not observed in PEDF-treated group. Moreover, PEDF significantly attenuated the increased levels of vascular cell and intercellular adhesion molecules, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, elicited by 12-HETE injection. Accordingly, the direct relationship between HETE and PEDF has been explored through in-vitro studies using Müller cells (rMCs) and human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs). The results showed that HETEs triggered the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6, as well as activation of NFκB in rMCs and significantly increased permeability and reduced zonula occludens protein-1 (ZO-1) immunoreactivity in HRECs. All these effects were prevented in PEDF-treated cells. Furthermore, interest in PEDF regulation during DR has been expanded to include NOX system. Retinal PEDF was significantly restored in diabetic mice treated with NOX inhibitor, apocynin, or lacking NOX2 up to 80% of the control level. Collectively, our findings suggest that interfering with LOX-NOX signaling opens up a new direction for treating DR by restoring endogenous PEDF that carries out multilevel vascular protective functions.