Some parasites have evolved the ability to adaptively manipulate host behavior. One notable example is the fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis sensu lato, which has evolved the ability to alter the behavior of ants in ways that enable fungal transmission and lifecycle completion. Because host mandibles are affected by the fungi, we focused on understanding changes in the metabolites of muscles during behavioral modification. We used High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass/Mass (HPLC-MS/MS) to detect the metabolite difference between controls and O. unilateralis-infected ants. There was a significant difference between the global metabolome of O. unilateralis-infected ants and healthy ants, while there was no significant difference between the Beauveria bassiana treatment ants group compared to the healthy ants. A total of 31 and 16 of metabolites were putatively identified from comparisons of healthy ants with O. unilateralis-infected ants and comparisons of B. bassiana with O. unilateralis-infected samples, respectively. This result indicates that the concentrations of sugars, purines, ergothioneine, and hypoxanthine were significantly increased in O. unilateralis-infected ants in comparison to healthy ants and B. bassiana-infected ants. This study provides a comprehensive metabolic approach for understanding the interactions, at the level of host muscles, between healthy ants and fungal parasites.
Studying the effects of different concentrations of ethephon on morphological and physiological changes in the roots of Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata Lamb. Hook.) seedlings under P deficiency can reveal the internal adaptive mechanisms of these plants under nutrient stress. Herein, we investigated the effects of different ethephon and cobalt chloride concentrations under normal P supply and P deficiency. A significant effect (p < 0.05) of exogenous additive application was observed on the development of Chinese fir root length, surface area, and volume. These root development indices showed maximum values when the ethephon concentration was 0.01 g kg−1 under normal P supply and P deficiency, and they were significantly different from those under 0.04 g kg−1 ethephon treatment. Similarly, the indices showed maximum values when CoCl2 concentration was 0.01 g kg−1 under P deficiency and was significantly different (p < 0.01) from those under 0.2 g kg−1 CoCl2 treatment. Under normal P supply, an increase in ethephon concentration caused superoxide dismutase (SOD; E.C. 1.15.1.1) activity to decrease and peroxidase (POD; E.C. 1.11.1.X) activity to increase gradually. Conversely, CoCl2 addition (0.01 g kg−1) promoted SOD and POD activities under P deficiency. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in malondialdehyde content of seedlings among ethephon or CoCl2 treatments. In conclusion, ethylene plays a significant role in adaptative mechanisms underlying stress resistance in plants, prompting them to respond to P starvation and improving seedlings’ tolerance to P-deficient conditions.
Phosphorous (P) is a crucial limiting nutrient for plant growth and development in terrestrial ecosystems. As one of the most important subtropical coniferous tree species, Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) plays a major role in timber supply, climate mitigation and forest recreation. In this study, two Chinese fir clones (020 and 061) with a high growth rate were subjected to two levels of P supply in a greenhouse pot experiment: P-deficient P0 (no P supply) and P-replete P1 (1.0 mmol L−1 KH2PO4). Our objectives were to study the differences in morphology and growth patterns, cambial development mechanism and secondary root growth. Root sampling was performed at 40, 80 and 120 days after treatment initiation. Results indicated that the P-replete condition produced more root cambial cells (RCCs) in third class (larger) roots of clone-061 than in those of clone-020; concomitantly, clone-061 showed significantly greater stem height (42.87 ± 1.33 cm), root collar diameter (5.45 ± 0.126 mm), root average diameter (RAD, third class = 1.27 ± 0.04 mm) in different root classes and whole-plant biomass (7.55 ± 0.69 g) compared with clone-020 under the P-replete condition. Root diameter and biomass increase due to higher cambial activity resulted in greater seedling quality. In addition, a significant positive correlation was observed between the number of RCCs and root morphological traits (root length, root surface area, RAD and root volume). Root development was significantly promoted by cambium activity in the P-replete environment, thereby enhancing plant secondary growth. Based on these outcomes, we suggest that clone-061 would be more useful for enhancing production. Regarding commercial purposes, these findings will contribute to the improvement of P fertilization efficiency.
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