The effects of chemical protein extraction, and enzymatic hydrolysis with Alcalase, papain and pepsin, on the functional properties, antioxidant activity, amino acid composition and protein structure of black soldier fly (H. illucens) larval protein were examined. Alcalase hydrolysates had the highest degree of hydrolysis (p < 0.05), with the highest hydrolysate and oil fraction yield (p < 0.05). Pepsin hydrolysates showed the lowest oil holding capacity (p < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed among other enzymes and protein concentrates (p > 0.05). The emulsifying stability and foam capacity were significantly lower in protein hydrolysates than protein concentrate (p < 0.05). The antioxidant activity of protein hydrolysates from protein concentrate and Alcalase was higher than that with papain and pepsin (p < 0.05), owing to the higher hydrophobic amino acid content. Raman spectroscopy indicated structural changes in protein α-helices and β-sheets after enzymatic hydrolysis.

The antimicrobial efficacy of novel photodynamic inactivation and nanobubble technologies was evaluated against Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Aeromonas hydrophila as two important aquatic microbial pathogens. Photodynamic inactivation results showed that LED (470 nm) and UV-A (400 nm)-activated curcumin caused a complete reduction in V. parahaemolyticus at 4 and 22 °C, and a greater than 2 log cfu/mL reduction in A. hydrophila, which was curcumin concentration-dependent (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the photodynamic approach caused a greater than 6 log cfu/mL V. parahaemolyticus reduction and more than 4 log cfu/mL of A. hydrophila reduction in aquaponic water samples (p < 0.05). Our results with the nanobubble technology showed that the nanobubbles alone did not significantly reduce bacteria (p > 0.05). However, a greater than 6 log cfu/mL A. hydrophila reduction and a greater than 3 log cfu/mL of V. parahaemolyticus reduction were achieved when nanobubble technology was combined with ultrasound (p < 0.05). The findings described in this study illustrate the potential of applying photodynamic inactivation and nanobubble–ultrasound antimicrobial approaches as alternative novel methods for inactivating fish and shellfish pathogens.

Removing foodborne pathogens from food surfaces and inactivating them in wash water are critical steps for reducing the number of foodborne illnesses. In this study we evaluated the impact of surfactants on enhancing nanobubbles’ efficacy on Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Listeria innocua removal from spinach leaves. We evaluated the synergistic impact of nanobubbles and ultrasound on these two pathogens inactivation in the cell suspension. The results indicated that nanobubbles or ultrasound alone could not significantly reduce bacteria in cell suspension after 15 min. However, a combination of nanobubbles and ultrasonication caused more than 6 log cfu/mL reduction after 15 min, and 7 log cfu/mL reduction after 10 min of L. innocua and E. coli, respectively. Nanobubbles also enhanced bacterial removal from spinach surface in combination with ultrasonication. Nanobubbles with ultrasound removed more than 2 and 4 log cfu/cm2 of L. innocua and E. coli, respectively, while ultrasound alone caused 0.5 and 1 log cfu/cm2 of L. innocua and E. coli reduction, respectively. No reduction was observed in the solutions with PBS and nanobubbles. Adding food-grade surfactants (0.1% Sodium dodecyl sulfate-SDS, and 0.1% Tween 20), did not significantly enhance nanobubbles efficacy on bacterial removal from spinach surface.