In this study, the deoxygenation pathway was proposed to eliminate oxygen species from biomass-derived oil, thereby producing a high quality of hydrocarbon chains (green fuel). The catalytic deoxygenation reaction of bio-oil model compound (oleic acid) successfully produced green gasoline (C8–C12) and diesel (C13–C20) via activated hydrotalcite-derived catalysts (i.e. CMgAl, CFeAl, CZnAl and CNiAl). The reaction was performed under inert N2 condition at 300 °C for 3 h, and the liquid products were analysed by GC–MS and GC–FID analyses to determine the hydrocarbon yield and product selectivity. The activity of the catalysts towards the deoxygenation reaction presented the following increasing order: CNiAl > CMgAl > CZnAl > CFeAl. CNiAl produced a hydrocarbon yield of up to 89 %. CNiAl demonstrated the highest selectivity with 83 % diesel production, whereas CMgAl showed the highest gasoline selectivity with 30 %. These results indicated that catalysts with a high acidic profile facilitate C–O cleavage via deoxygenation, producing hydrocarbons (mainly diesel-range hydrocarbons). Meanwhile, highly basic catalysts exhibit significant selectivity towards gasoline-range hydrocarbons via cracking and lead to the occurrence of C–C cleavage. The large surface area of CNiAl (117 m2 g−1) offered high approachability of the reactant with the catalyst’s active sites, thereby promoting high hydrocarbon yield. Consequently, the hydrocarbon yield and selectivity of the deoxygenation products were predominantly influenced by the acid–base properties and structural behaviour (porosity and surface area) of the catalyst.
The high oxygen content in natural biomass resources, such as vegetable oil or biomass-pyrolysed bio oil, is the main constraint in their implementation as a full-scale biofuel for the automotive industry. In the present study, renewable fuel with petrodiesel-like properties was produced via catalytic deoxygenation of oleic acid in the absence of hydrogen (H 2 ). The deoxygenation pathway of oleic acid to bio-hydrocarbon involves decarboxylation/decarbonylation of the oxygen content from the fatty acid structure in the form of carbon dioxide (CO 2 )/carbon monoxide (CO), with the presence of a goat manure supported Ni-Al hydrotalcite (Gm/Ni-Al) catalyst. Goat manure is an abundant bio-waste, containing a high mineral content, urea as well as cellulosic fiber of plants, which is potentially converted into activated carbon.Synthesis of Gm/Ni-Al was carried out by incorporation of pre-activated goat manure (GmA) during coprecipitation of Ni-Al catalyst with 1 : 3, 1 : 1 and 3 : 1 ratios. The physico-chemical properties of the catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) surface area, field emission surface electron microscopy (FESEM) and temperature program desorption ammonia (TPD-NH 3 ) analysers. The catalytic deoxygenation reaction was performed in a batch reactor and the product obtained was characterized by using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GCMS) for compound composition identification as well as gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (GC-FID) for yield and selectivity determination. The optimization and evaluation were executed using response surface methodology (RSM) in conjunction with central composite design (CCD) with 5-level-3-factors.From the RSM reaction model, it was found that the Gm/Ni-Al 1 : 1 catalysed deoxygenation reaction gives the optimum product yield of 97.9% of hydrocarbon in the range of C 8 -C 20 , with diesel selectivity (C 17 : heptadecane and heptadecene compounds) of 63.7% at the optimal reaction conditions of: (1) reaction temperature: 327.14 C, (2) reaction time: 1 h, and (3) catalyst amount: 5 wt%.
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