No abstract

Stress is an important factor that affects physical and mental status of a healthy person disturbing homeostasis of the body. Changes in the lifestyle are one of the major causes that lead to psychological stress. Psychological stress could impact the biology of female reproduction by targeting at the level of ovary, follicle and oocyte. The increased level of stress hormone such as cortisol reduces estradiol production possibly by affecting the granulosa cell functions within the follicle, which results deterioration in oocyte quality. Adaptation of lifestyle behaviours may generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the ovary, which further affects female reproduction. Balance between level of ROS and antioxidants within the ovary are important for maintenance of female reproductive health. Physiological level of ROS modulates oocyte functions, while its accumulation leads to oxidative stress (OS). OS triggers apoptosis in majority of germ cells within the ovary and even in ovulated oocytes. Although both mitochondria- as well as death-receptor pathways are involved in oocyte apoptosis, OS-induced mitochondria-mediated pathway plays a major role in the elimination of majority of germ cells from ovary. OS in the follicular fluid deteriorates oocyte quality and reduces reproductive outcome. On the other hand, antioxidants reduce ROS levels and protect against OS-mediated germ cell apoptosis and thereby depletion of germ cells from the ovary. Indeed, OS is one of the major factors that has a direct negative impact on oocyte quality and limits female reproductive outcome in several mammalian species including human.

Apoptosis causes elimination of more than 99% of germ cells from cohort of ovary through follicular atresia. Less than 1% of germ cells, which are culminated in oocytes further undergo apoptosis during last phases of oogenesis and depletes ovarian reserve in most of the mammalian species including human. There are several players that induce apoptosis directly or indirectly in oocytes at various stages of meiotic cell cycle. Premature removal of encircling granulosa cells from immature oocytes, reduced levels of adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate and guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate, increased levels of calcium (Ca(2+)) and oxidants, sustained reduced level of maturation promoting factor, depletion of survival factors, nutrients and cell cycle proteins, reduced meiotic competency, increased levels of proapoptotic as well as apoptotic factors lead to oocyte apoptosis. The BH3-only proteins also act as key regulators of apoptosis in oocyte within the ovary. Both intrinsic (mitochondria-mediated) as well as extrinsic (cell surface death receptor-mediated) pathways are involved in oocyte apoptosis. BID, a BH3-only protein act as a bridge between both apoptotic pathways and its cleavage activates cell death machinery of both the pathways inside the follicular microenvironment. Oocyte apoptosis leads to the depletion of ovarian reserve that directly affects reproductive outcome of various mammals including human. In this review article, we highlight some of the important players and describe the pathways involved during oocyte apoptosis in mammals.

Meiotic cell cycle in mammalian oocytes is a dynamic process that involves several stop/go channels. The cell cycle arrest in oocyte occurs at various stages such as diplotene, metaphase-I (M-I), metaphase-II (M-II), and so called metaphase-like arrest (M-III). Leutinizing hormone surge induces meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest in follicular microenvironment by overriding several factors responsible for the maintenance of meiotic arrest. The inhibitory factors are synthesized in oocyte or in the associated follicular somatic cells and transferred to the oocyte. The major factors include hypoxanthine, cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate, cyclic guanosine 3', 5'-monophosphate, reactive oxygen species, protein kinase A, and protein kinase C. In the presence of active protein kinases, epidermal-like growth factors are produced that activate mitogen-activated protein kinase in cumulus granulosa cells. The maturation promoting factor, cytostatic factors, and spindle assembly checkpoint proteins are also involved in that maintenance of arrest at various stages of meiotic cell cycle in mammalian oocytes. In this review, we briefly summarize the role of these factors in the maintenance of meiotic cell cycle arrest in mammalian oocytes.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is known to induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in various somatic cell types cultured in vitro. We hypothesize that this reactive oxygen species (ROS) could modulate cell cycle and induce morphological features characteristics of apoptosis in oocytes cultured in vitro. To test this hypothesis, immature and mature oocytes were cultured in medium containing various doses of H2O2 with or without caspase-3 inhibitor for various times. The treatment of H2O2 induced germinal vesicle break down (GVBD) in all immature oocytes followed by initiation of shrinkage. Some of immature oocytes (but not mature oocytes) also showed membrane blebbing. On the other hand, H2O2 treatment inhibited first polar body emission in mature oocytes just prior to initiation of shrinkage. The cytoplasmic granulation and fragmentation into apoptotic bodies were observed in mature oocytes during later stages of H2O2 treatment. The shrinkage was induced by H2O2 in a dose- and time-dependent manner in both immature and mature oocytes. Although, H2O2-induced degeneration was observed in both immature and mature oocytes after 2.0 hrs of treatment, immature oocytes were more susceptible to undergo quick shrinkage, membrane blebbing and degeneration. Co-addition of caspase-3 inhibitor prevented shrinkage and degeneration of both immature and mature oocytes except membrane blebbing that was observed at higher doses of H2O2 after 1.0 hr of culture. Treatment of H2O2 induced bax protein expression (3 times), DNA fragmentation and caspase-3 activity (2.5 times) in oocytes undergoing morphological apoptotic changes. These findings clearly suggest that H2O2 induced GVBD in immature oocytes, inhibited first polar body extrusion in mature oocytes prior to initiation of morphological changes characteristic of apoptosis such as shrinkage, membrane blebbing and cytoplasmic fragmentation prior to degeneration.

Mammalian ovary is metabolically active organ and generates by-products such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) on an extraordinary scale. Both follicular somatic cells as well as oocyte generate ROS and RNS synchronously and their effects are neutralized by intricate array of antioxidants. ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and RNS such as nitric oxide (NO) act as signaling molecules and modulate various aspects of oocyte physiology including meiotic cell cycle arrest and resumption. Generation of intraoocyte H(2)O(2) can induce meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest probably by the activation of adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase A (PRKA)-or Ca(2+)-mediated pathway. However, reduced intraoocyte NO level may inactivate guanylyl cyclase-mediated pathway that results in the reduced production of cyclic 3',5'-guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). The reduced level of cGMP results in the activation of cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A), which hydrolyses cAMP. The reduced intraoocyte cAMP results in the activation of maturation promoting factor (MPF) that finally induces meiotic resumption. Thus, a transient increase of intraoocyte H(2)O(2) level and decrease of NO level may signal meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest in mammalian oocytes.

The objective was to find out the functional roles of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and nitric oxide (NO) during various stages of meiotic cell cycle and apoptosis in rat oocytes. For this purpose, 30 oocytes from each stage such as diplotene, metaphase-I (M-I), metaphase-II (M-II) and apoptosis were collected and intracellular H(2)O(2), total nitrite level and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were analysed. This study demonstrated that generation of a tonic level of H(2)O(2) induces meiotic resumption in diplotene-arrested oocytes and further increase may lead to apoptosis. Conversely, reduction in iNOS expression and total nitrite level are associated with meiotic resumption in diplotene-arrested oocytes, but induce apoptosis in aged oocytes. These results suggest that generation of a tonic level of H(2)O(2), reduced iNOS expression and total nitrite level are associated with meiotic resumption, while more generation of H(2)O(2) and sustained reduced total nitrite level are linked with oocyte apoptosis in rat.

The present study was aimed to find out changes in signal molecules and maturation promoting factor (MPF) levels during meiotic cell cycle progression from diplotene and metaphase-II (M-II) arrest, a period during which oocyte achieves meiotic competency. Data suggest that high levels of adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP), guanosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP), and nitric oxide (NO) are associated with diplotene arrest, while reduction in their levels correlates with reduced MPF level and meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest. On the other hand, increased intracellular NO, calcium (Ca(2+) ) as well as hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) levels correlate with decreased cAMP, Thr-161 phosphorylated cyclin-dependent kinase-1 (Cdk1) as well as cyclin B1 levels. The decreased Thr-161 phosphorylated Cdk1 and cyclin B1 level reduce MPF level leading to exit from M-II arrest in oocytes cultured in vitro. These data suggest that the decrease of cAMP level and increase of cytosolic free Ca(2+) as well as H2 O2 levels associate with the reduced MPF level and meiotic resumption from diplotene arrest. On the other hand, increase of NO, cGMP, Ca(2+) as well as H2 O2 levels are associated with reduced MPF and spontaneous exit from M-II arrest in rat oocytes cultured in vitro.