This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis (CE) in small ruminants and humans in Addis Ababa, central Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study involving systematic random sampling was conducted to estimate the prevalence of CE in 512 small ruminants (262 sheep and 250 goats) slaughtered at Addis Ababa Abattoir Enterprise between October 2011 and March 2012. Hydatid cysts were identified macroscopically during postmortem examination and their fertility and viability were determined. CE was observed in 21 (8.02%) sheep and 17 (6.80%) goats. In sheep 13 (4.96%) of the lungs, 10 (3.81%) livers and 1 (0.381%) heart were found to be infected with hydatid cysts. Involvement of lung and liver in goats was found to be 10 (4.0%) and 8 (3.2%) respectively, with no cysts recorded in the heart. Of the total of 77 and 47 cysts encountered in sheep and goats, 33 (42.85%) and 15 (31.91%) respectively were fertile. Viability of protoscoleces from fertile cysts in sheep (29 [87.87%]) was higher than in goats (6 [40.0%]). For humans, retrospective analysis covering five years of case reports at two major hospitals in Addis Ababa between January 2008 and December 2012 showed that of the total of 25 840 patients admitted for ultrasound examination, 27 CE cases were registered, a prevalence of 0.1% and mean annual incidence rate of approximately 0.18 cases per 100 000 population. Liver was the major organ affected in humans (81.5% in affected patients) followed by spleen (11.1%) and kidney (7.4%). Logistic regression analysis showed that prevalence of CE varied significantly in relation to host age in the small ruminants (OR = 3.93, P < 0.05) as well as in humans (95% CI, R = 4.8). This epidemiological study confirms the importance of CE in small ruminants and humans in central Ethiopia, emphasising the need for integrated approaches to controlling this neglected preventable disease.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a widespread and endemic disease of cattle in Ethiopia posing a significant threat to public health. Regular surveillance by skin test, bacteriology, and molecular methods is not feasible due to lack of resources. Thus, routine abattoir (RA) inspection will continue to play a key role for national surveillance. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Woldiya municipal abattoir from April 1, 2009 to April 5, 2010 to estimate the prevalence of BTB in slaughtered cattle on the basis of detailed abattoir inspection and to compare efficacy of RA inspection with respect to detailed abattoir inspection and isolation and identification of Mycobacterium. Diagnostic accuracies (with corresponding measures of statistical uncertainty) were determined by computing test property statistics (sensitivity and specificity). Agreement between RA and detailed abattoir inspections was measured using kappa statistics. Out of 1,029 slaughtered heads of cattle examined during the study period, 63 (6.12 %) and 15 (1.45 %) were diagnosed with gross tuberculous lesions by detailed abattoir meat inspections and RA meat inspections, respectively, making a prevalence of 6.12 % (95 % CI: 5.2-7.1) on the basis of detailed abattoir inspection. About 59.45 % of tuberculous lesions were observed in the lungs and associated lymph nodes, whereas 35.13 % lesions were from the lymph nodes of the head. From 63 cattle suspected with tuberculosis (TB) based on detailed abattoir meat inspection, nine (19.05 %) were identified as Mycobacterium bovis, while three (4.8 %) as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The sensitivity of RA meat inspection was 23.8 % in comparison to the detailed abattoir meat inspection and 25 % in comparison to culture, respectively. Poor agreement (k = 0.37) was seen between RA meat examination and detailed abattoir meat examination methods. Similarly, poor agreement (k = 0.013) was seen between RA meat examination and culture results. In conclusion, relatively higher prevalence (6.12 %) was recorded in Woldiya municipal abattoir on the basis of detailed Abattoir inspection and RA meat inspection protocols currently utilized in Ethiopia which are insufficient to detect the majority (76.19 %) of TB lesions at the gross level, which indicates the magnitude of meat borne zoonotic TB as an ongoing risk to public health. Detailed abattoir inspection protocols were demonstrated to improve the detection level by approximately fourfold. In conclusion, routine meat inspections have limitations in detecting BTB-suggestive lesions which indicate the magnitude of meat-borne zoonotic TB as an ongoing risk to public health.

Abstract-Requirement Engineering is one of important stage in development life cycle. All requirements required for development of product is collected in this phase. A high standard product can be developed by agile methodology in less budget and time. Importance of agile practices have been enhanced since it offers assist cooperation too software engineering. Being basic phase of software engineering, requirement engineering has different processes. The elements of direct correspondence is one of spry way which not at all like to other conventional and traditional approaches .Although a lot of research has been done on agile practices and role of requirement in agile methodologies but still there is need of studies on change manage management ,requirement prioritization, prototyping and nonfunctional requirement in agile methodologies. Aim of this review paper is to present the limitations in presentation of requirement engineering phases in agile practices and what are the issues and challenges that agile person faces in implementation of agile practices. Many research studies from different sources have been reviewed on basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Most RE activities has been discussed in review. Evidence helps to prove that how RE process was performed in scrums. Mostly research has been conducted on general agile methodologies, few authors specified RE practices in other methodologies of agile. Finding of this research is the work of researchers that will be beneficial for those who are interested in finding interesting area of research in this field because many techniques of agile (extreme programming, crystal methodology, lean ) requires further study and practical results as clarified by studies.

Abattoirs are vital for gathering information on animal diseases and protecting the public from consuming infected or unhygienic meat. To assess the major reasons for organ and carcass condemnations and their financial implications, we reviewed 10-year abattoir records of slaughtered bovines between January 2005 and December 2014 at Kombolcha ELFORA abattoir, north-east Ethiopia. Of the 46,913 cattle slaughtered during that period, 17,963 (38.3%) had at least one disease condition. Lungs (10.67%) and liver (25%) were the most affected and condemned organs, followed by heart (1.53%), head (0.56%), tongue (0.17%) and kidney (0.32%). The major conditions responsible for condemnation were fasciolosis (49.89%), hydatid cyst (55.55%), pericarditis (78.2%), hydronephrosis (35.8%), abscess (71.7%) and abscess (43.9%), in liver, lung, heart, kidneys, head and tongue, respectively. The direct financial losses incurred from organ and carcass condemnation over the 10-year period amounted to ETB 1,219,399 (USD 61,946.9), with parasitic diseases such as fascioliasis and hydatidosis accounting for ETB 256,837.5 (USD 13,047.64) and ETB 170,827.5 (USD 8678.23) in losses, respectively. This study describes a significant loss of cheap and reliable sources of protein due to non-utilization of infected organs or carcasses, emphasizing the need to implement integrated approaches in disease surveillance and control programmes.

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