To determine how climate factors influence age, body size and sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the Mediterranean region, we generated data on age and body size of the European Treefrog, Hyla arborea, in three Turkish populations with a latitudinal gradient. We estimated age structure (total ), using skeletochronology. Mean body size of both sexes was smaller in a southern population (Antalya) than in northern populations (Çanakkale and Rize) with female-larger SSD in the northern populations. A positive correlation was found between age and body size in each sex of all the populations, save the Antalya females. Since amphibian growth is reduced after maturity but continues towards the asymptotic size, interpopulation size differences may partly be explained by differences in longevity with four years in Antalya and five years in the other two populations. Comparing age and body size in three Turkish populations with those in three different populations (Greece, Switzerland and Germany) from the literature, there was a trend of South-to-North increase in body size with increased latitude and decreased temperature and aridity. The same trend occurred also in age structure (e.g., age at maturity/first reproduction, longevity). These results suggest that a difference in age structure between populations is a main factor for the geographic variation in body size of this species.

Altitudinal gradients are an important variable in testing the life history traits (e.g., longevity, age at maturity, and body size) of organisms. In this study, the life history traits of the Anatolian lizard Apathya cappadocica were examined from 3 populations from different altitudes (Kilis, 697 m; Şanlıurfa, 891 m; Diyarbakır, 1058 m) from southeastern Anatolia, Turkey. Age structure was determined by using skeletochronology. Males in all populations were the larger sex; therefore, the populations showed male biases that were negative by the sexual size dimorphism index. Males in Diyarbakır (high altitude) were also younger than males in the other populations. There were no significant differences between the males and females of all 3 populations in terms of either age or snoutvent length except in the Şanlıurfa population, in which males were larger than females. Life history traits of A. cappadocica across altitudinal gradients may be affected by climatic factors, as males from the middle altitude population in Şanlıurfa, which inhabits a warmer and more arid environment, tended to be larger than males and females in Kilis and Diyarbakır.

We estimated differences in body size and age structure of two populations of Pelophylax ridibundus living at different altitudes in Turkey, one from Dörtyol (6 m a.s.l.) and the other from Karagöl (1480 m a.s.l.). Their age structure was determined by skeletochronology performed on the LAGs (lines of arrested growth) of the phalanges. While ages ranged from 2 to 8 years for males and from 2 to 7 years for females in Karagöl, in Dörtyol the ages ranged from 4 to 11 years for males, and 3 to 7 years for females. Sexual size dimorphism was only found in the Dörtyol population. Larger females tend to be found in hotter climates (Dörtyol) but reach maturity later (3-4 years) than the highland population (2 years). A significant relationship between age and snout-vent length (SVL) was found for both sexes and populations with the exception of females in Dörtyol.

Most of Turkey's land area is covered by one of three biodiversity hotspots (Caucasus, Irano-Anatolian, and Mediterranean). Anatolia is one of the main corridors for postglacial colonization of Europe. Uncovering how populations of a species differ genetically and ecologically is important for understanding evolutionary processes. Here, I examined ecological information to define ecological divergence between two lineages of Hyla savignyi. Using ecological niche modeling, I determined whether the two genetically divergent lineages of H. savignyi are geographically isolated and addressed the effect of the geographical distribution in the Anatolian Diagonal on the lineages. Separate analysis of the lineages showed no overlap of their predicted ranges based on climatic data of their respective habitats. This suggests that the lineages were formed as a result of range fragmentation during the Ice Age, and were consequently adapted to different climatic conditions.

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Differences in male and female traits (sexual dimorphism [SD]) are widespread in animals. Dimorphism in morphological characters evolves under the effect of environmental and genetic factors and is shaped by natural and sexual selection. In this study, intersexual differences in size and shape in common toad, Bufo bufo, populations in Turkey were investigated. For this, linear measurements of 27 body‐related morphometric characters in a sample of 140 individuals (70 males and 70 females) were compiled. The data were analyzed using univariate and multivariate statistical methods. The results show SD in body size with females having larger body size, a trait related with fecundity and thus probably under sexual selection. Body shape differences, which are associated with head width and dorsal head, are likely to prey size. Male‐biased differences observed in nasal characters and tympanum may also be associated with sexual selection (male–male competition). Our findings are consistent with previous studies of major of Anura and support a role for selection pressures acting differentially upon individuals from both sexes, resulting in the evolution of sexually dimorphic traits.

According to evolutionary biologists, ecology is a very important factor in speciation. Ecology may be effective at driving adaptive divergence between lineages in different environments and climatic conditions. Because Anatolia has major mountain belts, paleogeographic characteristics, and unique climatic traits, it plays an important role in speciation and shows a barrier effect for many terrestrial species. In this study, we investigated the climatic preferences of 6 isolated evolutionary lineages of Typhlops vermicularis in Anatolia using ecological niche modeling. Our results revealed that both glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) and interglacial (Last Interglacial) modeling, as well as current modeling, showed the most important climatic variables that potentially limit the spread of 6 major lineages of T. vermicularis throughout all of Anatolia. In addition, our results revealed that 6 lineages of T. vermicularis could be adapted to different climatic conditions. Finally, our study demonstrates the unique climatic importance of Anatolia as a center for the local diversification of T. vermicularis.

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