A call center is a service network in which agents provide telephone-based services. Customers who seek these services are delayed in tele-queues. This article summarizes an analysis of a unique record of call center operations. The data comprise a complete operational history of a small banking call center, call by call, over a full year. Taking the perspective of queueing theory, we decompose the service process into three fundamental components: arrivals, customer patience, and service durations. Each component involves different basic mathematical structures and requires a different style of statistical analysis. Some of the key empirical results are sketched, along with descriptions of the varied techniques required. Several statistical techniques are developed for analysis of the basic components. One of these techniques is a test that a point process is a Poisson process. Another involves estimation of the mean function in a nonparametric regression with lognormal errors. A new graphical technique is introduced for nonparametric hazard rate estimation with censored data. Models are developed and implemented for forecasting of Poisson arrival rates. Finally, the article surveys how the characteristics deduced from the statistical analyses form the building blocks for theoretically interesting and practically useful mathematical models for call center operations. We then survey how the characteristics deduced from the statistical analyses form the building blocks for theoretically interesting and practically useful mathematical models for call center operations.

The subject of the present research is the M/M/n + G queue. This queue is characterized by Poisson arrivals at rate λ, exponential service times at rate µ, n service agents and generally distributed patience times of customers. The model is applied in the call center environment, as it captures the tradeoff between operational efficiency (staffing cost) and service quality (accessibility of agents).In our research, three asymptotic operational regimes for medium to large call centers are studied. These regimes correspond to the following three staffing rules, as λ and n increase indefinitely and µ held fixed:Quality-Driven (QD): n ≈ (λ/µ) · (1 + γ ), γ > 0, and Quality and Efficiency Driven (QED):In the ED regime, the probability to abandon and average wait converge to constants. In the QD regime, we observe a very high service level at the cost of possible overstaffing. Finally, the QED regime carefully balances quality and efficiency: agents are highly utilized, but the probability to abandon and the average wait are small (converge to zero at rate 1/ √ n). Numerical experiments demonstrate that, for a wide set of system parameters, the QED formulae provide excellent approximation for exact M/M/n + G performance measures. The much simpler ED approximations are still very useful for overloaded queueing systems.Finally, empirical findings have demonstrated a robust linear relation between the fraction abandoning and average wait. We validate this relation, asymptotically, in the QED and QD regimes.

Motivated by call center practice, we study asymptotically optimal staffing of many-server queues with abandonment. A call center is modelled as an M/M/n + G queue, which is characterized by Poisson arrivals, exponential service times, n servers, and generally distributed patience times of customers. Our asymptotic analysis is performed as the arrival rate, and hence the number of servers n, increases indefinitely. We consider a constraint satisfaction problem, where one chooses the minimal staffing level n that adheres to a given cost constraint. The cost can incorporate the fraction abandoning, average wait, and tail probabilities of wait. Depending on the cost, several operational regimes arise as asymptotically optimal: Efficiency-Driven (ED), Quality and Efficiency-Driven (QED), and also a new ED + QED operational regime that enables QED tuning of the ED regime. Numerical experiments demonstrate that, over a wide range of system parameters, our approximations provide useful insight as well as excellent fit to exact optimal solutions. It turns out that the QED regime is preferable either for small-to-moderate call centers or for large call centers with relatively tight performance constraints. The other two regimes are more appropriate for large call centers with loose constraints. We consider two versions of the constraint satisfaction problem. The first one is constraint satisfaction on a single time interval, say one hour, which is common in practice. Of special interest is a constraint on the tail probability, in which case our new ED + QED staffing turns out asymptotically optimal. We also address a global constraint problem, say over a full day. Here several time intervals, say 24 hours, are considered, with interval-dependent staffing levels allowed; one seeks to minimize staffing levels, or more generally costs, given the overall performance constraint. In this case, there is the added flexibility of trading service levels among time intervals, but we demonstrate that only little gain is associated with this flexibility if one is concerned with the fraction abandoning.

Our note1 is dedicated to the Palm/Erlang-A Queue. This is the simplest practiceworthy queueing model, that accounts for customers' impatience while waiting. The model is gaining importance in support of the staffing of call centers, which is a central step in their Service-Engineering. We discuss computations of performance measures, both theoretical and software-based (via the 4CallCenter software). Then several examples of Palm/Erlang-A applications are presented, mostly motivated by and based on real call center data.Acknowledgements.

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I n this exposition, we discuss empirically based teaching in the newly emerging field of "service engineering." Specifically, we survey a service engineering course, taught at the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology. The course was "born" about 15 years ago as a graduate seminar and ultimately took its present form as a core course for the undergraduate program in industrial engineering and management. The role of measurements and data as teaching-enhancers and research-drivers is underscored. In addition, we emphasize that data granularity must reach the individual-transaction level. We describe customized databases and software tools that facilitate operational and statistical analysis of services; this includes the use of SEEStat, a data-user interface that was developed at the Technion's SEE Laboratory, for research and educational purposes. Some unique aspects of the course are the incorporation of state-of-the-art research and real-world data in lectures, recitations, and home assignments, as amply presented throughout this work. The application focus of the surveyed course has been telephone call centers, which constitute an explosively growing branch of the service industry. The course is now expanding to also cover healthcare, especially hospitals; some examples from other service areas (e.g., the justice system) are described as well.

We consider a multi-server queue with K priority classes. In this system, customers of the P highest priorities (P < K) can preempt customers with lower priorities, ejecting them from service and sending them back into the queue. Service times are assumed exponential with the same mean for all classes.The Laplace-Stieltjes transforms of waiting times are calculated explicitly and the Laplace-Stieltjes transforms of sojourn times are provided in an implicit form via a system of functional equations. In both cases, moments of any order can be easily calculated. Specifically, we provide formulae for the steady state means and the second moments of waiting times for all priority classes. We also study some approximations of sojourn-time distributions via their moments. In a practical part of our paper, we discuss the use of mixed priorities for different types of Service Level Agreements, including an example based on a real scheduling problem of IT support teams.