The Old World alphaviruses are emerging human pathogens with an ability to cause widespread epidemics. The latest epidemic of Chikungunya virus, from 2005 to 2007, affected over 40 countries in Africa, Asia, and Europe. The Old World alphaviruses are highly cytopathic and known to evade the cellular antiviral response by inducing global inhibition of transcription in vertebrate cells. This function was shown to be mediated by their nonstructural nsP2 protein; however, the detailed mechanism of this phenomenon has remained unknown. Here, we report that nsP2 proteins of Sindbis, Semliki Forest, and Chikungunya viruses inhibit cellular transcription by inducing rapid degradation of Rpb1, a catalytic subunit of the RNAPII complex. This degradation of Rpb1 is independent of the nsP2-associated protease activity, but, instead, it proceeds through nsP2-mediated Rpb1 ubiquitination. This function of nsP2 depends on the integrity of the helicase and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM)-dependent methyltransferase-like domains, and point mutations in either of these domains abolish Rpb1 degradation. We go on to show that complete degradation of Rpb1 in alphavirus-infected cells occurs within 6 h postinfection, before other previously described virus-induced changes in cell physiology, such as apoptosis, autophagy, and inhibition of STAT1 phosphorylation, are detected. Since Rpb1 is a subunit that catalyzes the polymerase reaction during RNA transcription, degradation of Rpb1 plays an indispensable role in blocking the activation of cellular genes and downregulating cellular antiviral response. This indicates that the nsP2-induced degradation of Rpb1 is a critical mechanism utilized by the Old World alphaviruses to subvert the cellular antiviral response. E fficient replication of viruses in infected hosts relies not only on their replicative machinery and expression of virus-specific nonstructural and structural proteins but also on their ability to interfere with the antiviral response mounted in cells of both vertebrate and invertebrate origin. Different viruses have evolved numerous mechanisms to inhibit the cellular antiviral response. While the vast majority of them interfere with specific steps of cellular signaling pathways, the highly cytopathic alphaviruses induce a global inhibition of cellular transcription (15). The entire alphavirus life cycle proceeds in the cytoplasm and is completed within 24 to 48 h postinfection (p.i.) (33). Therefore, functional nuclei appear to play no role in alphavirus replication. This allows global inhibition of cellular transcription to serve as an efficient means of inhibiting the antiviral response without affecting virus replication and egress. The inability of infected cells to activate cytokine and chemokine expression makes them incapable of signaling and, importantly, of releasing type I interferon (IFN), which could induce an antiviral state in as-yet-uninfected cells.The alphavirus genome is a single-stranded RNA of positive polarity with a cap at the 5= terminus and poly(A) at the...
In the absence of virus-targeting small-molecule drugs approved for the treatment and prevention of COVID-19, broadening the repertoire of potent SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing antibodies represents an important area of research in response to the ongoing pandemic. Systematic analysis of such antibodies and their combinations can be particularly instrumental for identification of candidates that may prove resistant to the emerging viral escape variants. Here, we isolated a panel of 23 RBD-specific human monoclonal antibodies from the B cells of convalescent patients. A surprisingly large proportion of such antibodies displayed potent virus-neutralizing activity both in vitro and in vivo. Four of the isolated nAbs can be categorized as ultrapotent with an apparent IC100 below 16 ng/mL. We show that individual nAbs as well as dual combinations thereof retain activity against currently circulating SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (such as B.1.1.7, B.1.351, B.1.617, and C.37), as well as against other viral variants. When used as a prophylactics or therapeutics, these nAbs could potently suppress viral replication and prevent lung pathology in SARS-CoV-2-infected hamsters. Our data contribute to the rational development of oligoclonal therapeutic nAb cocktails mitigating the risk of SARS-CoV-2 escape.
Fc receptor-like A (FCRLA) is an unusual member of the extended Fc receptor family. FCRLA has homology to receptors for the Fc portion of Ig (FCR) and to other FCRL proteins. However, unlike these other family representatives, which are typically transmembrane receptors with extracellular ligand-binding domains, FCRLA has no predicted transmembrane domain or N-linked glycosylation sites and is an intracellular protein. We show by confocal microscopy and biochemical assays that FCRLA is a soluble resident endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein, but it does not possess the amino acid sequence KDEL as an ER retention motif in its C-terminus. Using a series of deletion mutants, we found that its ER retention is most likely mediated by the amino terminal partial Ig-like domain. We have identified ER-localized Ig as the FCRLA ligand. FCRLA is unique among the large family of Fc receptors, in that it is capable of associating with multiple Ig isotypes, IgM, IgG and IgA. Among hemopoietic cells, FCRLA expression is restricted to the B lineage and is most abundant in germinal center B lymphocytes. The studies reported here demonstrate that FCRLA is more broadly expressed among human B lineage cells than originally reported; it is found at significant levels in resting blood B cells and at varying levels in all B-cell subsets in tonsil.
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