In 2016, the world's soybean meal production reached 217 million tones and nearly half of it was used as protein supplement in farm animal nutrition (1). Sunflower meal (SFM), the fourth largest oilseed meal produced in the world, also serves as a protein source, mostly in ruminant diets, while its use in poultry and pig diets is limited (2). Chemical composition of these plant meals determines their levels in complete feeds fed to farm animals. For instance, soybean and its by-products may contain appreciable levels of phytic acid (PA) up to 0.6%, trypsin inhibitors (TI) up to 21.0-30.3 mg/g, protease inhibitors up to 45-60 mg/g protein, oligosaccharides up to 15%, lectins up to 50-200 mg/g, glycinin up to 150-200 mg/g, and beta-conglycin up to 50-100 mg/g (27.74 mg/g); these are known as antinutritional factors (ANFs) in young monogastric animals and reduce the rates of nutrient assimilation and absorption at the sites of digestive tract (3,4). SFM has a proportionally less crude protein (CP) in comparison to soybean meal, and its dietary inclusion level is low in poultry diets since it contains high level of crude fiber (CF) up to 18%-29% and polyphenolic compounds, mainly chlorogenic acid, up to 2.70% (2). In this study, possible improvements in nutritional qualities of SFM and full-fat soybean (FFSB) for farm animal nutrition were targeted by a fermentation process. Improved nutritional qualities of fermented FFSB (F-FFSB) and fermented SFM (FSFM) by solid-state fermentation (SSF) using GRAS (generally regarded as safe) microorganisms were reported earlier (5-7) and recently well documented by Mukherjee et al. (8). In addition, fermented feeds may contain biologically active compounds (biosurfactants, phenolic compounds, organic acids, enzymes) and less ANFs (9-14). The species of Lactobacillus and Bacillus are mostly used to ferment the feed materials (8,15,16). Recently, fermentation using Bacillus subtilis was found to be superior to fungal fermentation in terms of the increased soluble protein

The present study was carried out to characterize germination capacity of 10 safflower cultivars under saline conditions. Five salt (NaCl) levels (0, 60, 120, 180, 240 mM) were used to test safflower seeds. Germination of seeds was counted every day for 14 days and germination percentage, Timson's germination index, mean germination time, mean germination rate and germination stress index were calculated. Cultivar and salinity treatments were important for all parameters; however mean germination time and mean germination rate interactions were not important. Germination percentage, Timson's germination and germination stress indices decreased significantly with increased salt concentrations. However, mean germination time increased with higher salt concentrations. The most significant reductions in germination percentage were observed at 180 and 240 mM salt concentrations. Correlation coefficients were all important for germination indices. Based on germination indices, Leed and FO2 were more sensitive to salt stress at germination stage and Royal was more resistant than the other cultivars tested. Germination percentage, Timson's germination index and germination stress index were better to assess germination capacity of safflower cultivars under salt stress conditions. Mean germination time and rate were not suitable to assess differences in germination parameters of the cultivars under stress conditions.

Seed vigor tests are used to estimate their quality. One of the most commonly used is the accelerated aging test (AA). The aim of the present study was to study the biochemical changes caused in the seeds and to determine their germination status after the AA. Six safflower genotypes were tested at 43 °C and 45 °C for 0, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h, and germination percentage (GP), mean germination time (MGT) and normal seedling percentage (NSP) were evaluated to determine the aging reactions of the genotypes. During the AA at 45 °C, the seeds quickly lost their germination ability after 48 h; after 120 h, the seeds lost their viability, remaining, however, still viable at 43 °C. Two genotypes that aged more (Linas and Olas) and less (Bayer-6 and Bayer-12) were chosen to examine the biochemical changes during the AA at 43 °C. Eleven biochemical analysis were performed to understand physiological changes associated with the test. Total caratone, xanthophyll, phenolics, flavonoid, soluble protein, soluble sugars, oil and malondialdehyde contents were lower after 120 h, compared to 0 h. Reducing sugars and free fatty acids contents increased in the least and most aging genotypes. However, the total tocopherol content increased in the least aging genotypes and decreased in the most aging genotypes after 120 h, compared to 0 h. The results showed that the AA at 43 °C was suitable to study the aging process in the safflower seeds. Besides, understanding the chemical changes was useful to elucidate the physiological basis of seed aging.

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The present study was carried out using Dinçer and Olas safflower varieties at 5 different salt (NaCl) concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM) for 14 days. The germination percentages of the cultivars under salt conditions as well as the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, POD and APX) and biochemical changes (protein and MDA) in the seedlings were determined. The germination percentage decreased with increased salt concentrations, and the greatest decrease in germination percentage was observed at a 200 mM salt concentration by 34% in both cultivars. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased at low salt concentrations, but decreased after 100 and 150 mM salt concentrations, respectively. Catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activities, as well as malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) contents, increased with increasing salt concentrations at Dinçer and Olas, but total soluble protein content decreased with increasing salt concentration. Peroxidase (POD) activity was not significantly affected by salt stress in safflower. Germination percentage showed negative correlations with CAT, MDA and H2O2 levels, and showed a positive correlation with soluble protein content under salt stress in safflower. The present results may be useful to identify mechanisms of salt tolerance involving antioxidant enzyme activities and biochemical changes in safflower seedlings.