We identified a previously unidentified conotoxin gene from Conus generalis whose precursor signal sequence has high similarity to the O1-gene conotoxin superfamily. The predicted mature peptide, αO-conotoxin GeXIVA (GeXIVA), has four Cys residues, and its three disulfide isomers were synthesized. Previously pharmacologically characterized O1-superfamily peptides, exemplified by the US Food and Drug Administration-approved pain medication, ziconotide, contain six Cys residues and are calcium, sodium, or potassium channel antagonists. However, GeXIVA did not inhibit calcium channels but antagonized nicotinic AChRs (nAChRs), most potently on the α9α10 nAChR subtype (IC50 = 4.6 nM). Toxin blockade was voltage-dependent, and kinetic analysis of toxin dissociation indicated that the binding site of GeXIVA does not overlap with the binding site of the competitive antagonist α-conotoxin RgIA. Surprisingly, the most active disulfide isomer of GeXIVA is the bead isomer, comprising, according to NMR analysis, two well-resolved but uncoupled disulfide-restrained loops. The ribbon isomer is almost as potent but has a more rigid structure built around a short 310-helix. In contrast to most α-conotoxins, the globular isomer is the least potent and has a flexible, multiconformational nature. GeXIVA reduced mechanical hyperalgesia in the rat chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain but had no effect on motor performance, warranting its further investigation as a possible therapeutic agent.

Opioids are first-line drugs for moderate to severe acute pain and cancer pain. However, these medications are associated with severe side effects, and whether they are efficacious in treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain remains controversial. Medications that act through alternative molecular mechanisms are critically needed. Antagonists of α9α10 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) have been proposed as an important nonopioid mechanism based on studies demonstrating prevention of neuropathology after trauma-induced nerve injury. However, the key α9α10 ligands characterized to date are at least two orders of magnitude less potent on human vs. rodent nAChRs, limiting their translational application. Furthermore, an alternative proposal that these ligands achieve their beneficial effects by acting as agonists of GABA B receptors has caused confusion over whether blockade of α9α10 nAChRs is the fundamental underlying mechanism. To address these issues definitively, we developed RgIA4, a peptide that exhibits high potency for both human and rodent α9α10 nAChRs, and was at least 1,000-fold more selective for α9α10 nAChRs vs. all other molecular targets tested, including opioid and GABA B receptors. A daily s.c. dose of RgIA4 prevented chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain in rats. In wild-type mice, oxaliplatin treatment produced cold allodynia that could be prevented by RgIA4. Additionally, in α9 KO mice, chemotherapy-induced development of cold allodynia was attenuated and the milder, temporary cold allodynia was not relieved by RgIA4. These findings establish blockade of α9-containing nAChRs as the basis for the efficacy of RgIA4, and that α9-containing nAChRs are a critical target for prevention of chronic cancer chemotherapyinduced neuropathic pain.pain | chemotherapy | alpha9 | nicotinic

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) that contain an alpha7 subunit are widely distributed in neuronal and nonneuronal tissue. These receptors are implicated in the release of neurotransmitters such as glutamate and in functions ranging from thought processing to inflammation. Currently available ligands for alpha7 nAChRs have substantial affinity for one or more other nAChR subtypes, including those with an alpha1, alpha3, alpha6, and/or alpha9 subunit. An alpha-conotoxin gene was cloned from Conus arenatus. Predicted peptides were synthesized and found to potently block alpha3-, alpha6-, and alpha7-containing nAChRs. Structure-activity information regarding conotoxins from distantly related Conus species was employed to modify the C. arenatus derived toxin into a novel, highly selective alpha7 nAChR antagonist. This ligand, alpha-CtxArIB[V11L,V16D], has low nanomolar affinity for rat alpha7 homomers expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, and antagonism is slowly reversible. Kinetic analysis provided insight into the mechanism of antagonism. alpha-CtxArIB interacts with five ligand binding sites per alpha7 receptor, and occupation of a single site is sufficient to block function. The peptide was also shown to be highly selective in competition binding assays in rat brain membranes. alpha-CtxArIB[V11L,V16D] is the most selective ligand yet reported for alpha7 nAChRs.

α6* (asterisk indicates the presence of additional subunits) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are broadly implicated in catecholamine-dependent disorders that involve attention, motor movement, and nicotine self-administration. Different molecular forms of α6 nAChRs mediate catecholamine release, but receptor differentiation is greatly hampered by a paucity of subtype selective ligands. α-Conotoxins are nAChR-targeted peptides used by Conus species to incapacitate prey. We hypothesized that distinct conotoxin-binding kinetics could be exploited to develop a series of selective probes to enable study of native receptor subtypes. Proline6 of α-conotoxin BuIA was found to be critical for nAChR selectivity; substitution of proline6 with 4-hydroyxproline increased the IC(50) by 2800-fold at α6/α3β2β3 but only by 6-fold at α6/α3β4 nAChRs (to 1300 and 12 nM, respectively). We used conotoxin probes together with subunit-null mice to interrogate nAChR subtypes that modulate hippocampal norepinephrine release. Release was abolished in α6-null mutant mice. α-Conotoxin BuIA[T5A;P6O] partially blocked norepinephrine release in wild-type controls but failed to block release in β4(-/-) mice. In contrast, BuIA[T5A;P6O] failed to block dopamine release in the wild-type striatum known to contain α6β2* nAChRs. BuIA[T5A;P6O] is a novel ligand for distinguishing between closely related α6* nAChRs; α6β4* nAChRs modulate norepinephrine release in hippocampus but not dopamine release in striatum.

The α3β4 nAChRs are implicated in pain sensation in the PNS and addiction to nicotine in the CNS. We identified an α-4/6-conotoxin (CTx) TxID from Conus textile. The new toxin consists of 15 amino acid residues with two disulfide bonds. TxID was synthesized using solid phase methods and the synthetic peptide was functionally tested on nAChRs heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. TxID blocked rat α3β4 nAChRs with a 12.5 nM IC50, which places it amongst the most potent α3β4 nAChR antagonists. TxID also blocked the closely related α6/α3β4 with a 94 nM IC50 but showed little activity on other nAChR subtypes. NMR analysis showed that two major structural isomers exist in solution, one of which adopts a regular α-CTx fold but with different surface charge distribution to other 4/6 family members. α-CTx TxID is a novel tool with which to probe the structure and function of α3β4 nAChRs.

Conus species are characterized by their hyperdiverse toxins, encoded by a few gene superfamilies. Our phylogenies of the genus, based on mitochondrial genes, confirm previous results that C. californicus is highly divergent from all other species. Genetic and biochemical analysis of their venom peptides comprise the fifteen most abundant conopeptides and over 50 mature cDNA transcripts from the venom duct. Although C. californicus venom retains many of the general properties of other Conus species, they share only half of the toxin gene superfamilies found in other Conus species. Thus, in these two lineages, approximately half of the rapidly diversifying gene superfamilies originated after an early Tertiary split. Such results demonstrate that, unlike endogenously acting gene families, these genes are likely to be significantly more restricted in their phylogenetic distribution. In concordance with the evolutionary duistance of C. californicus from other species, there are aspects of prey-capture behavior and prey preferences of this species that diverges significantly from all other Conus.

Transcripts for α9 and α10 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits are found in diverse tissues. The function of α9α10 nAChRs is best known in mechanosensory cochlear hair cells, but elsewhere their roles are less well-understood. α9α10 nAChRs have been implicated as analgesic targets and α-conotoxins that block α9α10 nAChRs produce analgesia. However, some of these peptides show large potency differences between species. Additionally several studies have indicated that these conotoxins may also activate GABAB receptors (GABABRs). To further address these issues, we cloned the cDNAs of mouse α9 and α10 nAChR subunits. When heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes, the resulting α9α10 nAChRs had the expected pharmacology of being activated by acetylcholine and choline but not by nicotine. A conotoxin analog, RgIA4, potently, and selectively blocked mouse α9α10 nAChRs with low nanomolar affinity indicating that RgIA4 may be effectively used to study murine α9α10 nAChR function. Previous reports indicated that RgIA4 attenuates chemotherapy-induced cold allodynia. Here we demonstrate that RgIA4 analgesic effects following oxaliplatin treatment are sustained for 21 days after last RgIA4 administration indicating that RgIA4 may provide enduring protection against nerve damage. RgIA4 lacks activity at GABAB receptors; a bioluminescence resonance energy transfer assay was used to demonstrate that two other analgesic α-conotoxins, Vc1.1 and AuIB, also do not activate GABABRs expressed in HEK cells. Together these findings further support the targeting of α9α10 nAChRs in the treatment of pain.

α6β2 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed by dopaminergic neurons in the CNS are potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of several neuropsychiatric diseases, including nicotine addiction and Parkinson disease. However, recent studies indicate that the α6 subunit can also associate with the β4 subunit to form α6β4 nAChRs that are difficult to pharmacologically distinguish from α6β2, α3β4, and α3β2 subtypes. The current study characterized a novel 16-amino acid α-conotoxin (α-CTx) TxIB from Conus textile whose sequence is GCCSDPPCRNKHPDLC-amide as deduced from gene cloning. The peptide and an analog with an additional C-terminal glycine were chemically synthesized and tested on rat nAChRs heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. α-CTx TxIB blocked α6/α3β2β3 nAChR with an IC(50) of 28 nm. In contrast, the peptide showed little or no block of other tested subtypes at concentrations up to 10 μm. The three-dimensional solution structure of α-CTx TxIB was determined using NMR spectroscopy. α-CTx TxIB represents a uniquely selective ligand for probing the structure and function of α6β2 nAChRs.