human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and interrelated. The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal manner, on the same footing, and with the same emphasis. While the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of States, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms.' 7 The definition of a child is provided by Article 1: 'for the purposes of the present Convention, a child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier'. 8 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comments N.5 (2003), CRC/GC/2003/5, 4.
The use of near infrared reflectance to measure kernel hardness in wheat is well established. Characterisation of wheat varieties grown commercially in the Republic of Ireland by this parameter revealed a bimodal hardness index distribution, with the degree of separation observed between the two varietal clusters being season-dependent. With one exception, the varietal composition of each cluster was identical to that obtained by a classification on the basis of milling and bread-baking quality. As the variety in question (Minaret) was not sown in 1983 and accounted for less than 2% of the commercial crop in the following year, hardness index measurement has been introduced by the trade as an indicator of milling and bread-baking quality. The precision (standard deviation between duplicates =0.24) and reproducibility (2.5% misclassification rate) of this test was shown to be sufficient for the trading application envisaged.
This paper analyses the views and preferences of children and young people who experience barriers when attempting to engage with schools and schooling. It specifically considers processes of formal and informal exclusion and the manner in which “stigmatised” children are treated within a system where attendance to children’s rights is, at best, sketchy and at worst – downright discriminatory. The paper poses a number of critical questions concerning the extent to which the views of children are given due weight in decision-making processes in schools, whether the background a child comes from affects the way school staff listen to them and whether school rules act as a barrier or enabler for children’s rights. In turn, these questions are related to what educational processes might look like that place due weight on the views of children, what cultures create barriers to listening in practice, and what we can learn from children’s overall experiences. The paper presents findings from a participatory empirical peer research project (funded by a Carnegie Research Incentive Grant and the University of Edinburgh Challenge Investment Fund), conducted with and by young people in schools in Scotland and the north of England. This paper is innovative as it is the product of collaborative working between academics at the University of Edinburgh, staff at Investing in Children and the young researchers who co-authored this article for publication.
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