Energy is required to maintain physiological homeostasis in response to environmental change. Although responses to environmental stressors frequently are assumed to involve high metabolic costs, the biochemical bases of actual energy demands are rarely quantified. We studied the impact of a near-future scenario of ocean acidification [800 μatm partial pressure of CO 2 (pCO 2 )] during the development and growth of an important model organism in developmental and environmental biology, the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Size, metabolic rate, biochemical content, and gene expression were not different in larvae growing under control and seawater acidification treatments. Measurements limited to those levels of biological analysis did not reveal the biochemical mechanisms of response to ocean acidification that occurred at the cellular level. In vivo rates of protein synthesis and ion transport increased ∼50% under acidification. Importantly, the in vivo physiological increases in ion transport were not predicted from total enzyme activity or gene expression. Under acidification, the increased rates of protein synthesis and ion transport that were sustained in growing larvae collectively accounted for the majority of available ATP (84%). In contrast, embryos and prefeeding and unfed larvae in control treatments allocated on average only 40% of ATP to these same two processes. Understanding the biochemical strategies for accommodating increases in metabolic energy demand and their biological limitations can serve as a quantitative basis for assessing sublethal effects of global change. Variation in the ability to allocate ATP differentially among essential functions may be a key basis of resilience to ocean acidification and other compounding environmental stressors.ocean acidification | sea urchin | energetics | metabolic allocation | development

Physiological increases in energy expenditure frequently occur in response to environmental stress. Although energy limitation is often invoked as a basis for decreased calcification under ocean acidification, energy-relevant measurements related to this process are scant. In this study we focus on first-shell (prodissoconch I) formation in larvae of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. The energy cost of calcification was empirically derived to be ≤ 1.1 µJ (ng CaCO3)−1. Regardless of the saturation state of aragonite (2.77 vs. 0.77), larvae utilize the same amount of total energy to complete first-shell formation. Even though there was a 56% reduction of shell mass and an increase in dissolution at aragonite undersaturation, first-shell formation is not energy limited because sufficient endogenous reserves are available to meet metabolic demand. Further studies were undertaken on larvae from genetic crosses of pedigreed lines to test for variance in response to aragonite undersaturation. Larval families show variation in response to ocean acidification, with loss of shell size ranging from no effect to 28%. These differences show that resilience to ocean acidification may exist among genotypes. Combined studies of bioenergetics and genetics are promising approaches for understanding climate change impacts on marine organisms that undergo calcification.

Understanding and predicting biological stability and change in the face of rapid anthropogenic modifications of ecosystems and geosystems are grand challenges facing environmental and life scientists. Physiologically, organisms withstand environmental stress through changes in biochemical regulation that maintain homeostasis, which necessarily demands tradeoffs in the use of metabolic energy. Evolutionarily, in response to environmentally forced energetic tradeoffs, populations adapt based on standing genetic variation in the ability of individual organisms to reallocate metabolic energy. Combined study of physiology and genetics, separating "Nature and Nurture," is, thus, the key to understanding the potential for evolutionary adaptation to future global change. To understand biological responses to global change, we need experimentally tractable model species that have the well-developed physiological, genetic, and genomic resources necessary for partitioning variance in the allocation of metabolic energy into its causal components. Model species allow for discovery and for experimental manipulation of relevant phenotypic contrasts and enable a systems-biology approach that integrates multiple levels of analyses to map genotypic-to-phenotypic variation. Here, we illustrate how combined physiological and genetic studies that focus on energy metabolism in developmental stages of a model marine organism contribute to an understanding of the potential to adapt to environmental change. This integrative research program provides insights that can be readily incorporated into individual-based ecological models of population persistence under global change.

Animal size is a highly variable trait regulated by complex interactions between biological and environmental processes. Despite the importance of understanding the mechanistic bases of growth, predicting size variation in early stages of development remains challenging. Pedigreed lines of the Pacific oyster () were crossed to produce contrasting growth phenotypes to analyze the metabolic bases of growth variation in larval stages. Under controlled environmental conditions, substantial growth variation of up to 430% in shell length occurred among 12 larval families. Protein was the major biochemical constituent in larvae, with an average protein-to-lipid content ratio of 2.8. On average, 86% of protein synthesized was turned over (i.e. only 14% retained as protein accreted), with a regulatory shift in depositional efficiency resulting in increased protein accretion during later larval growth. Variation in protein depositional efficiency among families did not explain the range in larval growth rates. Instead, changes in protein synthesis rates predicted 72% of growth variation. High rates of protein synthesis to support faster growth, in turn, necessitated greater allocation of the total ATP pool to protein synthesis. An ATP allocation model is presented for larvae of that includes the major components (82%) of energy demand: protein synthesis (45%), ion pump activity (20%), shell formation (14%) and protein degradation (3%). The metabolic trade-offs between faster growth and the need for higher ATP allocation to protein synthesis could be a major determinant of fitness for larvae of different genotypes responding to the stress of environmental change.

The energy made available through catabolism of specific biochemical reserves is constant using standard thermodynamic conversion equivalents (e.g., 24.0 J mg protein(-1)). In contrast, measurements reported for the energy cost of synthesis of specific biochemical constituents are highly variable. In this study, we measured the metabolic cost of protein synthesis and determined whether this cost was influenced by genotype, phenotype, or environment. We focused on larval stages of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, a species that offers several experimental advantages: availability of genetically pedigreed lines, manipulation of ploidy, and tractability of larval forms for in vivo studies of physiological processes. The cost of protein synthesis was measured in larvae of C. gigas for 1) multiple genotypes, 2) phenotypes with different growth rates, and 3) different environmental temperatures. For all treatments, the cost of protein synthesis was within a narrow range--near the theoretical minimum--with a fixed cost (mean ± one standard error, n = 21) of 2.1 ± 0.2 J (mg protein synthesized)(-1) We conclude that there is no genetic variation in the metabolic cost of protein synthesis, thereby simplifying bioenergetic models. Protein synthesis is a major component of larval metabolism in C. gigas, accounting for more than half the metabolic rate in diploid (59%) and triploid larvae (54%). These results provide measurements of metabolic cost of protein synthesis in larvae of C. gigas, an indicator species for impacts of ocean change, and provide a quantitative basis for evaluating the cost of resilience.

Understanding the mechanisms that establish variation in growth and metabolism is 12 fundamental in evolutionary and physiological ecology. Although a genetic basis is frequently 13 invoked to explain variation in performance, it remains challenging to study such processes in 14 marine animals due to the lack of genetically-enabled "model" organisms. The Pacific oyster 15 Crassostrea gigas is a species for which pedigreed genetic lines have been established. In this 16 study, a series of larval families were produced by crossbreeding pedigreed lines to yield large-17 volume larval cultures to provide sufficient biomass for biochemical and physiological analyses. 18Major phenotypic contrasts in larval growth rate were evident. A primary goal of this study was 19 to investigate the physiological bases for this variation in growth and to identify biomarkers that 20 are predictive of growth potential. To that end, measurements were undertaken to define the 21 relationship between rates of growth, respiration, and ion transport by the sodium-potassium 22 pump (in vivo Na + ,K + -ATPase activity). The relationship of respiration and ion transport during 23 larval growth showed that, on average, 17% of total energy demand was allocated to support ion 24 transport. Further analyses of total Na + ,K + -ATPase activity (in vitro enzyme assay) revealed that 25 41% of the total metabolic rate could be accounted for by this single process if all of the enzyme 26 was physiologically active. Significant biological variation was evident, however, when size-27 specific comparisons were made across different larval families. These differences were up to (i) 28 2.2-fold in ion transport rates; (ii) 2.8-fold in the allocation of energy to support the metabolic 29 demand of ion transport; (iii) 3.5-fold in total enzyme activity; (iv) 3.9-fold in the 30 physiologically active fraction of total enzyme; and (v) 3.1-fold in gene expression. These 31 differences among families highlight the need to distinguish genetic from environmental causes 32 of biological variation. Notably, for inferences of physiological changes based upon molecular 33 biological analyses, the measured rates of ion transport were not predicted from concurrent 34 measurements of gene expression or enzyme activity. Size-corrected rates of ion transport were 35 predictive of variation in growth rates among different larval families, supporting the application 36 of physiological rates of ion transport as a predictor of growth differences. Evolutionary 37 variation in physiological performance has important implications for understanding the ecology 38 of larval forms. Developing physiological indices will be of value in predicting growth and 39 metabolism and corresponding survival of larval forms of different genotypes in response to 40 environmental change.

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Recent experimental and theoretical evidence suggests that social factors may play an important role in female choice and sexual selection. This is in contrast to the assumption made by most classical sexual selection models that female preferences are entirely determined by genetic factors. This study examined whether female preferences in the poeciliid fish Perugia's Limia (Limia perugiae) are reversible through (i) mate‐choice copying (imitative) behavior, or (ii) a disruption effect (reduced consistency of female preference in response to disruption). Females in binary choice trials were given a mate‐choice copying opportunity by exposing them to a second, model female displaying a preference for a male that was not initially preferred. Females were found to reverse their initial preference significantly more often when presented with an opportunity to observe the model female then in the absence of such an opportunity. In separate trials, females were presented with the opportunity to observe a model female displaying a preference for a male that was initially preferred. No significant difference was observed in the number of reversals between treatments in which females were presented with a copying opportunity that contradicted their initial preference and one that reinforced it. Our results suggest that mate‐choice copying does not contribute significantly to female preferences in L. perugiae and that disruption may reduce the ability of females to choose consistently.