RC) 28 29 30 ¶ These authors contributed equally to this work. 2 31 Abstract 32Birds harbor diverse microorganisms in their guts, which collectively fulfill important 33 roles in providing their hosts with nutrition and protection from pathogens. Although numerous 34 studies have investigated the presence of certain pathogenic bacteria in the feces of wild birds, 35 only a few have attempted to investigate the microbiota of the gut. This study analyzed the avian 36 bacteria present in the cloaca of avian scavengers captured on coastal beaches of Washington and 37 Oregon between 2013 and 2015: 10 turkey vultures (Cathartes aura), 9 bald eagles (Haliaeetus 38 leucocephalus), and 2 common ravens (Corvus corax). We used illumina sequencing based on 39 the V4 region of the 16s gene was to characterize the bacterial diversity. Our investigation 40 revealed phylum-level differences in the microbiome of turkey vultures, compared with bald 41 eagles and common ravens. Substantial microbiome differences were found between bald eagles 42 and ravens below the phylum level. Although little is known about the possible relations among 43 these microorganisms, our analyses provides the first integrated look at the composition of the 44 avian microbiota and serves as a foundation for future studies in this area. 45 46 Keywords: avian scavenger, turkey vulture, bald eagle, common raven, bacteria, coast, 47 microbiota, microbiome, raptor. 48 Abbreviations: OTU = operational taxonomic unit 49 50 3 51 Introduction 52 Birds harbor diverse microorganisms in their gut, which collectively fulfill important 53 roles in providing their hosts with nutrition and protection from pathogens [1]. Gut 54 microorganisms have been isolated and characterized by a variety of methods, such as culture-55 based assays, culture-independent DNA sequencing, and fluorescence in situ hybridization 56 targeting the 16S rRNA gene [2]. Most of these studies are limited in scope and are focused on 57 pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Clostridium 58 perfringens [3-5]. 59 In recent years, metagenomics using next-generation sequencing has emerged as a way to 60 analyze complex microbial communities and their functions [6]. This approach is capable of 61 sequencing thousands or millions of amplified DNA molecules in a single run and, for bacteria, 62 does not require conventional cloning and amplification. Additionally, metagenomic studies 63 offer a powerful tool for the comprehensive and unbiased assessment of microbial diversity 64 within the complex gut ecosystem by allowing examination of organisms not easily cultured in 65 the laboratory [6, 7]. 66 Few studies have used genetic sequencing to explore the intestinal microbiota of wild 67 birds [8]. Furthermore, these studies reported gene sequences to phylum or class levels only, 68 with no attempt to understand extant microorganism populations at the species level. In this 69 study, we analyze the avian microbiome present in the cloaca of bald eagles, turkey vultures, ...
, had visited this great and imaginative project. He welcomed, therefore, the opportunity of congratulating the Authors and their firms and of thanking them for their great kindness on that extremely interesting visit, when it had been possible to see much of the work in hand.102. The problem of providing enough water for the fast-growing and bustling colony of Hong Kong was a difficult one and every available source had to be tapped.The project which the Authors described was a notable one by any standards. The idea of storing water in what had previously been an area of the sea, the dam itself, which was designed to allow considerable settlements, the huge purpose-built dredger and placer for building the main dam, the auxiliary works, including the neoprene weir (which had been inflated to show how it worked), the 30ft diameter tunnel between the dams and Tqi PO Tau, designed to carry water either way, the water treatment plant near Sha Tin, and the arrangements there to control the whole system when in operation, were splendid examples of what could be done by using the most modern engineering techniques.103. Speaking for the Secretary as well as for himself, he said that their best wishes went to the Authors and their firms for the successful completion of the project, which would be a major achievement in the engineering world.Mr N. A. F. Rowntree (Water Resources Board) said that barrages were a subject of discussion in Great Britain at that time and, since the responsibility for investigating the feasibility of two barrages had been placed on his Board, he was not only interested in the Paper but very pleased to see it presented at the Institution. The Plover Cove scheme had made it clear that works of this size could be carried out by British engineering firms, and the Water Resources Board had shown their confidence by asking British engineering consultants to look at the feasibility studies for which the Board were responsible. 105.Another important feature of the Paper from a public relations point of view was that it indicated the magnitude and complexity of the problems involved in carrying out this type of work. The rather light-hearted way in which requests for a barrage were sometimes made could be embarrassing, and he had been pleased to hear the procedure which had been adopted in Hong Kong. The foundations of the argument were the great need for water, the problem of providing storage for the adequate rainfall of the island, and the difficulty of finding a land location for this storage. To take advantage of the nature of the coastline and provide a barrage, had been a logical sequence of thought.106. After a great deal of consideration it had been decided that if a barrage
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