The phylogenetic relationships of the subfamily Dolichopodinae was investigated based on the examination of over 340 species of Dolichopodinae from all zoogeographic regions. Sixty-five exemplar species were included in a cladistic analysis based on 74 morphological characters of adult specimens. Twenty genera are recognized in the Dolichopodinae: Allohercostomus Yang, Saigusa & Masunaga, Anasyntormon Parent, Argyrochlamys Lamb, Cheiromyia Dyte, Dolichopus Latreille, Gymnopternus Loew, Hercostomus Loew, Metaparaclius Becker, Muscidideicus Becker, Ortochile Latreille, Paraclius Loew, Parahercostomus Yang, Saigusa & Masunaga, Pelastoneurus Loew, Platyopsis Parent, Poecilobothrus Mik, Prohercostomus Grichanov, Stenopygium Becker, Sybistroma Meigen, Tachytrechus Haliday, and New Genus A. Eleven genera are newly synonymized: Halaiba Parent (=Argyrochlamys Lamb); Lichtwardtia Enderlein (=Dolichopus Latreille); Phalacrosoma Becker (=Hercostomus Loew); Steleopyga Grootaert & Meuffels (=Hercostomus Loew); Proarchus Aldrich (=Pelastoneurus Loew); Sarcionus Aldrich (=Pelastoneurus Loew); Pterostylus Mik (=Poecilobothrus Mik); Ludovicius Rondani (=Sybistroma Meigen); Nodicornis Rondani (=Sybistroma Meigen); Gonioneurum Becker (=Tachytrechus Haliday); Syntomoneurum Becker (=Tachytrechus Haliday). The following new generic combinations are established: Argyrochlamys breviseta (Parent), Argyrochlamys cavicola (Parent), Cheiromyia maculipennis (Van Duzee), Dolichopus angulicornis (Grichanov), Dolichopus clypeatus (Grichanov), Dolichopus emelyanovi (Grichanov), Dolichopus fractinervis (Parent), Dolichopus hilgerae (Grichanov), Dolichopus hollisi (Grichanov), Dolichopus maculatus (Parent), Dolichopus minusculus (Parent), Dolichopus mironovi (Grichanov), Dolichopus nigrifacies (Grichanov), Dolichopus nigrotorquatus (Parent), Dolichopus nikolaevae (Grichanov), Dolichopus sukharevae (Grichanov), Dolichopus tikhonovi (Grichanov), Hercostomus amoenus (Becker), Hercostomus argyreus (Wei & Lui), Hercostomus briarea (Wei & Lui), Hercostomus dactylocera (Grootaert & Meuffels), Hercostomus fulgidipes (Becker), Hercostomus hubeiensis (Yang), Hercostomus imperfectus (Becker), Hercostomus postiseta (Yang & Saigusa), Hercostomus zygolipes (Grootaert & Meuffels), Poecilobothrus aberrans (Loew), Poecilobothrus chrysozygos (Wiedemann), Prohercostomus bickeli (Evenhuis), Prohercostomus interceptus (Meunier), Prohercostomus intremulus (Meunier), Prohercostomus meunierianus (Evenhuis), Prohercostomus monotonus (Meunier), Prohercostomus negotiosus (Meunier), Prohercostomus notabilis (Meunier), Prohercostomus noxialis (Meunier), Prohercostomus vulgaris (Meunier), Stenopygium punctipennis (Say), Sybistroma acutatus (Yang), Sybistroma apicicrassus (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma apicilarius (Yang), Sybistroma biaristatus (Yang), Sybistroma biniger (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma bogoria (Grichanov), Sybistroma brevidigitatus (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma crinicauda (Zetterstedt), Sybistroma curvatus (Yang), Sybistroma digitiformis (Yang, Yang & Li), Sybistroma dorsalis (Yang), Sybistroma emeishanus (Yang), Sybistroma eucerus (Loew), Sybistroma fanjingshanus (Yang, Grootaert & Song), Sybistroma flavus (Yang), Sybistroma golanicus (Grichanov), Sybistroma henanus (Yang), Sybistromaimpar (Rondani), Sybistroma incisus (Yang), Sybistroma inornatus (Loew), Sybistroma israelensis (Grichanov), Sybistroma longiaristatus (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma longidigitatus (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma lorifer (Mik), Sybistroma luteicornis (Parent), Sybistroma miricornis (Parent), Sybistroma neixianganus (Yang), Sybistroma qinlingensis (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma sciophillus (Loew), Sybistroma sheni (Yang & Saigusa), Sybistroma sichuanensis (Yang), Sybistroma sinaiensis (Grichanov), Sybistroma spectabilis (Parent), Sybistroma sphenopterus (Loew), Sybistroma transcaucasius (Stackelberg), Sybistroma yunnanensis (Yang), Tachytrechus alatus (Becker), Tachytrechus analis (Parent), Tachytrechus beckeri (Parent), Tachytrechus giganteus (Brooks), Tachytrechus varus (Becker). Pelastoneurus lineatus de Meijere, 1916, junior secondary homonym of Pelastoneurus lineatus Aldrich, 1896, is given the new replacement name Pelastoneurus neolineatus nom. nov. Four genera are excluded from the subfamily including Colobocerus Parent, Katangaia Parent, Pseudohercostomus Stackelberg and Vetimicrotes Dyte. A key to the world genera of Dolichopodinae is provided.
Diplolepis nodulosa (Beutenmüller) induces small, single-chambered, prosoplasmic galls in stems of Rosa blanda Ait. Gall initiation begins when adult females deposit a single egg into the procambium of R. blanda buds. Pith cells at the distal pole of the egg lyse forming a chamber into which the hatching larva enters. Cells lining the chamber differentiate into nutritive cells, which serve as the larval food. Gall growth is characterized by the proliferation of parenchymatous nutritive cells causing gall enlargement. A separate gall vasculature does not form, but instead, gall tissues are irrigated by the existing stem vasculature. Maturation begins when gall tissues cease proliferating and differentiate into distinct layers concentrically arranged around the larval chamber. The innermost layer is composed of cytoplasmically dense nutritive tissue, followed by parenchymatous nutritive tissue, sclerenchyma, cortex, and epidermis. Parenchymatous nutritive tissue differentiates into nutritive tissue and is consumed by the larva. Galls of D. nodulosa are susceptible to anatomical modification by the phytophagous inquiline Periclistus pirata (Osten Sacken). Galls attacked by P. pirata become enlarged and multichambered, with little resemblance to inducer-inhabited galls. Periclistus pirata kill the larva of D. nodulosa at oviposition and deposit several eggs per host gall. Inquiline-occupied galls may contain the eggs of several females. Nutritive tissue induced by D. nodulosa disintegrates. Growth of attacked galls occurs prior to hatching of P. pirata eggs. At egg hatch, the gall appears as an enlarged hollow sphere and larvae disperse over the chamber surface and feed on parenchymatous tissue. Feeding induces tissue proliferation, which surrounds each larva within its own chamber. As galls mature, cells surrounding each larval chamber lignify forming a sclerenchyma sheath. Cells inside the sclerenchyma sheath differentiate into nutritive cells and are consumed by the inquiline larvae.Key words: Rosa, Cynipidae, gall, developmental morphology, inquiline.
Study of all flies (Diptera) collected for one year from a four-hectare (150 x 266 meter) patch of cloud forest at 1,600 meters above sea level at Zurquí de Moravia, San José Province, Costa Rica (hereafter referred to as Zurquí), revealed an astounding 4,332 species. This amounts to more than half the number of named species of flies for all of Central America. Specimens were collected with two Malaise traps running continuously and with a wide array of supplementary collecting methods for three days of each month. All morphospecies from all 73 families recorded were fully curated by technicians before submission to an international team of 59 taxonomic experts for identification.Overall, a Malaise trap on the forest edge captured 1,988 species or 51% of all collected dipteran taxa (other than of Phoridae, subsampled only from this and one other Malaise trap). A Malaise trap in the forest sampled 906 species. Of other sampling methods, the combination of four other Malaise traps and an intercept trap, aerial/hand collecting, 10 emergence traps, and four CDC light traps added the greatest number of species to our inventory. This complement of sampling methods was an effective combination for retrieving substantial numbers of species of Diptera. Comparison of select sampling methods (considering 3,487 species of non-phorid Diptera) provided further details regarding how many species were sampled by various methods.Comparison of species numbers from each of two permanent Malaise traps from Zurquí with those of single Malaise traps at each of Tapantí and Las Alturas, 40 and 180 km distant from Zurquí respectively, suggested significant species turnover. Comparison of the greater number of species collected in all traps from Zurquí did not markedly change the degree of similarity between the three sites, although the actual number of species shared did increase.Comparisons of the total number of named and unnamed species of Diptera from four hectares at Zurquí is equivalent to 51% of all flies named from Central America, greater than all the named fly fauna of Colombia, equivalent to 14% of named Neotropical species and equal to about 2.7% of all named Diptera worldwide. Clearly the number of species of Diptera in tropical regions has been severely underestimated and the actual number may surpass the number of species of Coleoptera.Various published extrapolations from limited data to estimate total numbers of species of larger taxonomic categories (e.g., Hexapoda, Arthropoda, Eukaryota, etc.) are highly questionable, and certainly will remain uncertain until we have more exhaustive surveys of all and diverse taxa (like Diptera) from multiple tropical sites.Morphological characterization of species in inventories provides identifications placed in the context of taxonomy, phylogeny, form, and ecology. DNA barcoding species is a valuable tool to estimate species numbers but used alone fails to provide a broader context for the species identified.
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