A number of studies have reported that parents of autistic children face higher levels of stress, but few studies examined the stress associated with the home care of children with pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) other than autistic disorder. The aims of the present study were therefore to (i) evaluate the emotional stress level of parents caring for their children with PDD; and (ii) explore the correlates of their emotional stress. Participants were 147 families (147 mothers and 122 fathers) of 158 children with PDD (42 with autistic disorder, 35 with Asperger's disorder and 81 with PDD not otherwise specified). K6 was used to measure the stress level of the parents. Marital relationships and personality were assessed with the Intimate Bond Measure and the NEO FiveFactor Inventory, respectively. The parents also rated the characteristics of their children with PDD through the Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Autism Society Japan Rating Scale (PARS). The mean K6 score of the mothers was significantly higher than that of the women in the general population in Japan. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that the emotional stress of the mothers was correlated with the personality traits of Neuroticism and Agreeableness, perceived Control by the husband, and the children's PARS score. Clinicians can deliver better service by paying appropriate attention to the emotional distress of mothers of children with not only autistic disorder but also other PDD.

Scale insects have evolved extreme sexual dimorphism, as demonstrated by sedentary juvenile-like females and ephemeral winged males. This dimorphism is established during the post-embryonic development; however, the underlying regulatory mechanisms have not yet been examined. We herein assessed the role of juvenile hormone (JH) on the diverging developmental pathways occurring in the male and female Japanese mealybug Planococcus kraunhiae (Kuwana). We provide, for the first time, detailed gene expression profiles related to JH signaling in scale insects. Prior to adult emergence, the transcript levels of JH acid O-methyltransferase, encoding a rate-limiting enzyme in JH biosynthesis, were higher in males than in females, suggesting that JH levels are higher in males. Furthermore, male quiescent pupal-like stages were associated with higher transcript levels of the JH receptor gene, Methoprene-tolerant and its co-activator taiman, as well as the JH early-response genes, Krüppel homolog 1 and broad. The exposure of male juveniles to an ectopic JH mimic prolonged the expression of Krüppel homolog 1 and broad, and delayed adult emergence by producing a supernumeral pupal stage. We propose that male wing development is first induced by up-regulated JH signaling compared to female expression pattern, but a decrease at the end of the prepupal stage is necessary for adult emergence, as evidenced by the JH mimic treatments. Furthermore, wing development seems linked to JH titers as JHM treatments on the pupal stage led to wing deformation. The female pedomorphic appearance was not reflected by the maintenance of high levels of JH. The results in this study suggest that differential variations in JH signaling may be responsible for sex-specific and radically different modes of metamorphosis.

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