The media and scientific literature are increasingly reporting an escalation of large carnivore attacks on humans in North America and Europe. Although rare compared to human fatalities by other wildlife, the media often overplay large carnivore attacks on humans, causing increased fear and negative attitudes towards coexisting with and conserving these species. Although large carnivore populations are generally increasing in developed countries, increased numbers are not solely responsible for the observed rise in the number of attacks by large carnivores. Here we show that an increasing number of people are involved in outdoor activities and, when doing so, some people engage in risk-enhancing behaviour that can increase the probability of a risky encounter and a potential attack. About half of the well-documented reported attacks have involved risk-enhancing human behaviours, the most common of which is leaving children unattended. Our study provides unique insight into the causes, and as a result the prevention, of large carnivore attacks on people. Prevention and information that can encourage appropriate human behaviour when sharing the landscape with large carnivores are of paramount importance to reduce both potentially fatal human-carnivore encounters and their consequences to large carnivores.
The increasing trend of large carnivore attacks on humans not only raises human safety concerns but may also undermine large carnivore conservation efforts. Although rare, attacks by brown bears
Ursus arctos
are also on the rise and, although several studies have addressed this issue at local scales, information is lacking on a worldwide scale. Here, we investigated brown bear attacks (n = 664) on humans between 2000 and 2015 across most of the range inhabited by the species: North America (n = 183), Europe (n = 291), and East (n = 190). When the attacks occurred, half of the people were engaged in leisure activities and the main scenario was an encounter with a female with cubs. Attacks have increased significantly over time and were more frequent at high bear and low human population densities. There was no significant difference in the number of attacks between continents or between countries with different hunting practices. Understanding global patterns of bear attacks can help reduce dangerous encounters and, consequently, is crucial for informing wildlife managers and the public about appropriate measures to reduce this kind of conflicts in bear country.
The deer ked [Lipoptena cervi (L. 1758) (Dipt., Hippoboscidae)] is a blood-sucking ectoparasite of cervids. The species has been resident in Sweden for more than two centuries, whereas in Finland ( approximately 50 years) and Norway ( approximately 30 years), it has established itself relatively recently. L. cervi may cause serious health problems in its natural hosts, act as a vector for zoonotic diseases, and pose a socioeconomic threat to forest-based activity. In this paper, we review the distribution and former expansion of the species in Fennoscandia. The current distribution of L. cervi appears bimodal, and the geographical range expansion of the species shows notable differences across Fennoscandia. The western population in Norway and Sweden has its northern edge of range at respective latitudes of 61 degrees N and 62 degrees N, whereas the eastern population in Finland reaches 65 degrees N. The future expansion of L. cervi is dependent on several interdependent extrinsic and intrinsic factors. International multidisciplinary collaboration is needed to achieve a synthesis on the factors affecting expansion rates and to understand the effects of L. cervi on wildlife, human health, and the rural societies of Fennoscandia.
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