34 These authors contributed equally to the work.Key Words: CD38, oxytocin, mutation, polymorphism, autism, high-functioning autism Author information Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to H. Higashida (haruhiro@med.kanazawa-u.ac.jp). 3 ABSTRACTThe neurobiological basis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remains poorly understood.Given the role of CD38 in social recognition through oxytocin (OT) release, we hypothesized that CD38 may play a role in the etiology of ASD. Here, we first examined the immunohistochemical expression of CD38 in the hypothalamus of post-mortem brains of non-ASD subjects and found that CD38 was colocalized with OT in secretory neurons.In studies of the association between CD38 and autism, we analyzed 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and mutations of CD38 by re-sequencing DNAs mainly from a case-control study in Japan, and Caucasian cases mainly recruited to the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE). The SNPs of CD38, rs6449197 (p<0.040) and rs3796863 (p<0.005) showed significant associations with a subset of ASD (IQ>70; designated as high-functioning autism (HFA)) in the U.S. 104 AGRE family trios, but not with Japanese 188 HFA subjects. A mutation that caused tryptophan to replace arginine at amino acid residue 140 (R140W; (rs1800561, 4693C>T)) was found in 0.6%-4.6% of the Japanese population and was associated with ASD in the smaller case-control study. The SNP was clustered in pedigrees in which the fathers and brothers of T-allele-carrier probands had ASD or ASD traits. In this cohort OT plasma levels were lower in subjects with the T allele than in those without. One proband with the T allele who was taking nasal OT spray showed relief of symptoms. The two variant CD38 poloymorphysms tested may be of interest with regard of the pathophysiology of ASD.4

beta-NAD(+) is as abundant as ATP in neuronal cells. beta-NAD(+) functions not only as a coenzyme but also as a substrate. beta-NAD(+)-utilizing enzymes are involved in signal transduction. We focus on ADP-ribosyl cyclase/CD38 which synthesizes cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR), a universal Ca(2+) mobilizer from intracellular stores, from beta-NAD(+). cADPR acts through activation/modulation of ryanodine receptor Ca(2+) releasing Ca(2+) channels. cADPR synthesis in neuronal cells is stimulated or modulated via different pathways and various factors. Subtype-specific coupling of various neurotransmitter receptors with ADP-ribosyl cyclase confirms the involvement of the enzyme in signal transduction in neurons and glial cells. Moreover, cADPR/CD38 is critical in oxytocin release from the hypothalamic cell dendrites and nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary. Therefore, it is possible that pharmacological manipulation of intracellular cADPR levels through ADP-ribosyl cyclase activity or synthetic cADPR analogues may provide new therapeutic opportunities for treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Interlaminar astrocytes (ILA) in the cerebral cortex possess a soma in layer I and extend an interlaminar process that runs perpendicular to the pia into deeper cortical layers. We examined cerebral cortex from 46 species that encompassed most orders of therian mammalians, including 22 primate species. We described two distinct cell types with interlaminar processes that have been referred to as ILA, that we termed pial ILA and supial ILA. ILA subtypes differ in somatic morphology, position in layer I, and presence across species. We further described rudimentary ILA that have short GFAP+ processes that do not exit layer I, and “typical” ILA with longer GFAP+ processes that exit layer I. Pial ILA were present in all mammalian species analyzed, with typical ILA observed in Primates, Scandentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora, Artiodactyla, Hyracoidea, and Proboscidea. Subpial ILA were absent in Marsupialia, and typical subpial ILA were only found in Primate. We focused on the properties of pial ILA by investigating the molecular properties of pial ILA and confirming their astrocytic nature. We found that while the density of pial ILA somata only varied slightly, the complexity of ILA processes varied greatly across species. Primates, specifically bonobo, chimpanzee, orangutan, and human, exhibited pial ILA with the highest complexity. We showed that interlaminar processes contact neurons, pia, and capillaries, suggesting a potential role for ILA in the blood-brain barrier and facilitating communication among cortical neurons, astrocytes, capillaries, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.

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Hypothalamic oxytocin (OT) is released into the brain by cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) with or without depolarizing stimulation. Previously, we showed that the intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) that seems to trigger OT release can be elevated by β-NAD+, cADPR, and ADP in mouse oxytocinergic neurons. As these β-NAD+ metabolites activate warm-sensitive TRPM2 cation channels, when the incubation temperature is increased, the [Ca2+]i in hypothalamic neurons is elevated. However, it has not been determined whether OT release is facilitated by heat in vitro or hyperthermia in vivo in combination with cADPR. Furthermore, it has not been examined whether CD38 and TRPM2 exert their functions on OT release during stress or stress-induced hyperthermia in relation to the anxiolytic roles and social behaviors of OT under stress conditions. Here, we report that OT release from the isolated hypothalami of male mice in culture was enhanced by extracellular application of cADPR or increasing the incubation temperature from 35°C to 38.5°C, and simultaneous stimulation showed a greater effect. This release was inhibited by a cADPR-dependent ryanodine receptor inhibitor and a nonspecific TRPM2 inhibitor. The facilitated release by heat and cADPR was suppressed in the hypothalamus isolated from CD38 knockout mice and CD38- or TRPM2-knockdown mice. In the course of these experiments, we noted that OT release differed markedly between individual mice under stress with group housing. That is, when male mice received cage-switch stress and eliminated due to their social subclass, significantly higher levels of OT release were found in subordinates compared with ordinates. In mice exposed to anxiety stress in an open field, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) OT level increased transiently at 5 min after exposure, and the rectal temperature also increased from 36.6°C to 37.8°C. OT levels in the CSF of mice with lipopolysaccharide-induced fever (+0.8°C) were higher than those of control mice. The TRPM2 mRNA levels and immunoreactivities increased in the subordinate group with cage-switch stress. These results showed that cADPR/CD38 and heat/TRPM2 are co-regulators of OT secretion and suggested that CD38 and TRPM2 are potential therapeutic targets for OT release in psychiatric diseases caused by social stress.

ADP-ribosyl cyclase and/or CD38 are activated after oxytocin receptor stimulation in the hypothalamus and pituitary in adult mice, leading to facilitation of oxytocin secretion. Although cyclic adenosine 5'-diphosphoribose (cADPR) primarily acts as an intracellular second messenger, it has been suggested that extracellular cADPR stimulates intracellular ryanodine receptors after internalisation via the nucleotide-transporting capacity of CD38 in fibroblasts and astrocytes. However, little is known about whether extracellular cADPR activates neurones. To address this question, we used a model neuronal cell line, NG108-15 mouse neuroblastoma x rat glioma hybrid cells possessing CD38 but not oxytocin receptors, and measured cytosolic free calcium concentrations ([Ca(2+)](i)). Extracellular application of cADPR to NG108-15 cells elevated [Ca(2+)](i) at 35 degrees C. The elevation was significantly enhanced when measured at 40 degrees C. The cADPR and heat-induced [Ca(2+)](i) increase were blocked under extracellular Ca(2+)-free conditions and by 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate, an antagonist of melastatin-related transient receptor potential channel 2 (TRPM2) cation channels. Reverse transcriptation-polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that TRPM2 channels were expressed in NG108-15 cells. Application of oxytocin elevated [Ca(2+)](i) in NG108-15 cells transformed to transiently express cloned human oxytocin receptors. The oxytocin-induced [Ca(2+)](i) response was also enhanced by heat. These results indicate that the extracellular application of cADPR, together with heat, activates cation influx downstream of oxytocin receptor signalling in NG108-15 neuronal cells, and suggest the possible involvement of TRPM2 channels in oxytocin release in the mammalian brain.

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Background: Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a late-onset neurodegenerative disorder associated with premutation alleles of the FMR1 gene. Expansions of more than 200 CGG repeats give rise to fragile X syndrome, the most common inherited form of cognitive impairment. Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome is characterized by cerebellar tremor and ataxia, and the presence of ubiquitin-positive inclusions in neurons and astrocytes. It has been previously suggested that fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome is associated with an inflammatory state based on signs of oxidative stress–mediated damage and iron deposition. Objective: Determine whether the pathology of fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome involves microglial activation and an inflammatory state. Methods: Using ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 and cluster differentiation 68 antibodies to label microglia, we examined the number and state of activation of microglial cells in the putamen of 13 fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome and 9 control postmortem cases. Results: Nearly half of fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome cases (6 of 13) presented with dystrophic senescent microglial cells. In the remaining fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome cases (7 of 13), the number of microglial cells and their activation state were increased compared to controls. Conclusions: The presence of senescent microglial cells in half of fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome cases suggests that this indicator could be used, together with the presence of intranuclear inclusions and the presence of iron deposits, as a biomarker to aid in the postmortem diagnosis of fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome. An increased number and activation indicate that microglial cells play a role in the inflammatory state present in the fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome brain. Anti-inflammatory treatment of patients with fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome may be indicated to slow neurodegeneration.