This research investigated the effects of aquatic training on the swimming performance of 126 children, ages 2.5 to 5.5 yr., over 8 mo. Two groups of children were enrolled in an aquatic training program. Group 1 were returning program participants at the beginning of this study, and Group 2 were new participants. The control children (Group 3) received no aquatic training during the research. Subjects performed six categories of swimming tasks at three points in time--1st mo., 4th mo., and 8th mo. The categories were Locomotion: Front, Locomotion: Back, Kicking, Entry: Jump, Diving, and Ring Pick-up. A 2 X 3 X 2 X 3 (sex X group X age X time) repeated-measures analysis of variance procedure showed that returning participants performed each category of swimming tasks at a more advanced level than the other groups at each time of measurement. New participants after training performed five of the categories of tasks at a more advanced level than the control group. Amount of training significantly influenced swimming, and training effects were task-specific when data were interpreted in terms of specific movement characteristics.
The purpose of this research was to establish the validity and reliability of a swimming scale designed for children, ages 2 to 6 yr. Subjects ( N = 57) were tested on nine categories of tasks. These tasks were selected from the skills traditionally included within the motor domain of swimming; therefore, the scale is assumed to be valid. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used to estimate the interjudge objectivity, and within-day, and between-days reliabilities. The range of values for each were: .99 to .98, .99 to .96, and .97 to .84, respectively. As these values are acceptable, the swimming scale seems to be an appropriate instrument for assessing the performance of preschool children.
Bandura (1977) has suggested that self-observation, or visual feedback, is an important part of the modeling process because the learner uses it to make correct movements. This research was designed to test Bandura's hypothesis as applied to young children. Primary-grade children ( N = 117) learned two different motor tasks, balancing on a stabilometer and jumping a horizontally rotating bar. They performed 15 and 9 trials, respectively, of the tasks under different feedback conditions. Children in the experimental conditions viewed a videotape of their own performance periodically during learning. A three factor (Sex × Condition × Trial Block, 2 × 4 × 3) repeated-measures analysis of variance was applied to performance data. The two major findings extended Bandura's hypothesis to children's observational motor learning. The temporal placement of visual feedback was important during stability learning. The children who viewed their own performance later in learning were able to make subsequent corrections of movement whereas children in the other visual feedback groups did not improve after the initial block of practice trials. The availability of component responses influenced the young boys' ability to reproduce the jumping task. They were unable to anticipate the rotation of the bar even after extensive practice with visual feedback. In conclusion, this investigation suggested that Bandura's hypothesis that self-observation is important may be generalized to children's observational learning of a stability task. Additional research is needed to document the modeling processes during motor development.
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