proliferation, neurochemical differentiation, migration of neural precursor cells, and electrical activity in randomly formed neural networks (Frank et al., 2018). Most in vitro systems do not recapitulate many of the complex cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions or morphogen gradients in the intact organism that are necessary for normal brain formation and may be subject to significant influence by toxicants (Lein et al., 2005). To address possible adverse effects of chemicals on these complex mechanisms, non-mammalian models such as zebrafish embryos can be successfully employed (Dach et al., 2019). Alternatively, the applicability of invertebrate models such as Caenorhabditis (Avila et al., 2012), planarians (Hagstrom et al., 2019), or Drosophila (Rand, 2010) is recognized. In spite of the phylogenetical distance between vertebrates and invertebrates, mechanisms of neural development appear to be highly conserved (Sánchez-Soriano et al., 2007). Comparative DNT studies between a zebrafish and a
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