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AimCold‐adapted species had their largest distribution areas during glacial periods, whereas the subsequent interglacials led to retreats of these taxa into mountain ranges and more northern regions, but existing data are not sufficient for generalizing these range dynamics. To improve our knowledge of the different phylogeographical patterns existing for cold‐adapted species, we examined two closely related butterfly species of the genus Boloria with alpine disjunct and arctic–alpine distribution respectively.LocationEurope: High mountain areas and Scandinavia.TaxaBoloria pales and B. napaea.MethodsWe sequenced two mitochondrial (COI, ND1/trRNA/16S region) and two nuclear genes (wingless and EF‐1α) for 182 B. pales specimens from 37 localities and 60 B. napaea specimens from 12 localities representing the whole distribution area of both species in Europe. We used existing and known calibration points to date the age of the relevant splits.ResultsWhile nuclear DNA showed no genetic structures, the mitochondrial loci revealed 91 haplotypes belonging to three well‐differenced genetic lineages: (a) all samples of B. napaea from the Alps and Scandinavia, (b) the samples of B. pales from the Alps, Carpathians, High Tatra, Pirin Mountains, Dinaric Alps in Montenegro and the Apennines and (c) all samples of B. pales from the Pyrenees. The time estimates for the splits between these three groups range from 1.3 to 0.84 million years ago (mya). The further within‐groups differentiations are not older than 0.32 mya, but reveal a subtle pattern among and within mountain ranges.Main conclusionsAllopatry during the mid‐Pleistocene has led to differentiation into three major genetic groups, each of which possibly representing a separate species today. Especially within the today widespread mountain group (i.e. the pales sensu stricto group), repeated expansion out of their Alpine centre and a number of different peri‐Alpine glacial distribution areas have produced the subtle genetic structure observed over the late Pleistocene. The two other groups also show substructures, but to a lesser degree, hence, calling for a less disrupted distribution pattern during the late Pleistocene. However, the arctic populations of B. napaea are not derived from the same source as the Alpine ones.

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Lycian salamanders (genus Lyciasalamandra) constitute an exceptional case of microendemism of an amphibian species on the Asian Minor mainland. These viviparous salamanders are confined to karstic limestone formations along the southern Anatolian coast and some islands. We here study the genetic differentiation within and among 118 populations of all seven Lyciasalamandra species across the entire genus' distribution. Based on circa 900 base pairs of fragments of the mitochondrial 16SrDNA and ATPase genes, we analysed the spatial haplotype distribution as well as the genetic structure and demographic history of populations. We used 253 geo-referenced populations and CHELSA climate data to infer species distribution models which we projected on climatic conditions of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Within all but one species, distinct phyloclades were identified, which only in parts matched current taxonomy. Most haplotypes (78%) were private to single populations. Sometimes population genetic parameters showed contradicting results, although in several cases they indicated recent population expansion of phyloclades. Climatic suitability of localities currently inhabited by salamanders was significantly lower during the LGM compared to recent climate. All data indicated a strong degree of isolation among Lyciasalamandra populations, even within phyloclades. Given the sometimes high degree of haplotype differentiation between adjacent populations, they must have survived periods of deteriorated climates during the Quaternary on the spot. However, the alternative explanation of male biased dispersal combined with a pronounced female philopatry can only be excluded if independent nuclear data confirm this result.

Supplementary Table S1. Some mensural characters (in mm) and ratios of the Lyciasalamandra fazilae fazilae. 1: values in raw data; 2: values in PERCRA index; N: number of specimens; SD: standard deviation; SE: standard error of mean; P: p≤0.05 value for sexual dimorphism. The other abbreviations of the characters are given in Materials and Methods. Characters♂ t-test ♀ Juveniles Sum Adults (♂+♀)