This paper presents a new muscle contraction (MC) sensor. This MC sensor is based on a novel principle whereby muscle tension is measured during muscle contractions. During the measurement, the sensor is fixed on the skin surface above the muscle, while the sensor tip applies pressure and causes an indentation of the skin and intermediate layer directly above the muscle and muscle itself. The force on the sensor tip is then measured. This force is roughly proportional to the tension of the muscle. The measurement is non-invasive and selective. Selectivity of MC measurement refers to the specific muscle or part of the muscle that is being measured and is limited by the size of the sensor tip. The sensor is relatively small and light so that the measurements can be performed while the measured subject performs different activities. Test measurements with this MC sensor on the biceps brachii muscle under isometric conditions (elbow angle 90°) showed a high individual linear correlation between the isometric force and MC signal amplitudes (0.97 ≤ r ≤ 1). The measurements also revealed a strong correlation between the MC and electromyogram (EMG) signals as well as good dynamic behaviour by the MC sensor. We believe that this MC sensor, when fully tested, will be a useful device for muscle mechanic diagnostics and that it will be complementary to existing methods.
We propose calibration methods for microelectromechanical system (MEMS) 3D accelerometers and gyroscopes that are efficient in terms of time and computational complexity. The calibration process for both sensors is simple, does not require additional expensive equipment, and can be performed in the field before or between motion measurements. The methods rely on a small number of defined calibration measurements that are used to obtain the values of 12 calibration parameters. This process enables the static compensation of sensor inaccuracies. The values detected by the 3D sensor are interpreted using a generalized 3D sensor model. The model assumes that the values detected by the sensor are equal to the projections of the measured value on the sensor sensitivity axes. Although this finding is trivial for 3D accelerometers, its validity for 3D gyroscopes is not immediately apparent; thus, this paper elaborates on this latter topic. For an example sensor device, calibration parameters were established using calibration measurements of approximately 1.5 min in duration for the 3D accelerometer and 2.5 min in duration for the 3D gyroscope. Correction of each detected 3D value using the established calibration parameters in further measurements requires only nine addition and nine multiplication operations.
A 3D gyroscope provides measurements of angular velocities around its three intrinsic orthogonal axes, enabling angular orientation estimation. Because the measured angular velocities represent simultaneous rotations, it is not appropriate to consider them sequentially. Rotations in general are not commutative, and each possible rotation sequence has a different resulting angular orientation. None of these angular orientations is the correct simultaneous rotation result. However, every angular orientation can be represented by a single rotation. This paper presents an analytic derivation of the axis and angle of the single rotation equivalent to three simultaneous rotations around orthogonal axes when the measured angular velocities or their proportions are approximately constant. Based on the resulting expressions, a vector called the simultaneous orthogonal rotations angle (SORA) is defined, with components equal to the angles of three simultaneous rotations around coordinate system axes. The orientation and magnitude of this vector are equal to the equivalent single rotation axis and angle, respectively. As long as the orientation of the actual rotation axis is constant, given the SORA, the angular orientation of a rigid body can be calculated in a single step, thus making it possible to avoid computing the iterative infinitesimal rotation approximation. The performed test measurements confirm the validity of the SORA concept. SORA is simple and well-suited for use in the real-time calculation of angular orientation based on angular velocity measurements derived using a gyroscope. Moreover, because of its demonstrated simplicity, SORA can also be used in general angular orientation notation.
This paper presents an analysis of a golf swing to detect improper motion in the early phase of the swing. Led by the desire to achieve a consistent shot outcome, a particular golfer would (in multiple trials) prefer to perform completely identical golf swings. In reality, some deviations from the desired motion are always present due to the comprehensive nature of the swing motion. Swing motion deviations that are not detrimental to performance are acceptable. This analysis is conducted using a golfer's leading arm kinematic data, which are obtained from a golfer wearing a motion sensor that is comprised of gyroscopes and accelerometers. Applying the principal component analysis (PCA) to the reference observations of properly performed swings, the PCA components of acceptable swing motion deviations are established. Using these components, the motion deviations in the observations of other swings are examined. Any unacceptable deviations that are detected indicate an improper swing motion. Arbitrarily long observations of an individual player's swing sequences can be included in the analysis. The results obtained for the considered example show an improper swing motion in early phase of the swing, i.e., the first part of the backswing. An early detection method for improper swing motions that is conducted on an individual basis provides assistance for performance improvement.
We demonstrate that the common interpretation of angular velocities measured by a 3D gyroscope as being sequential Euler rotations introduces a systematic error in the sensor orientation calculated during motion tracking. For small rotation angles, this systematic error is relatively small and can be mistakenly attributed to different sources of sensor inaccuracies, including output bias drift, inaccurate sensitivities, and alignments of the sensor sensitivity axes as well as measurement noise. However, even for such small angles, due to accumulation over time, the erroneous rotation interpretation can have a significant negative impact on the accuracy of the computed angular orientation. We confirm our findings using real-case measurements in which the described systematic error just worsens the deleterious effects typically attributed to an inaccurate sensor and random measurement noise. We demonstrate that, in general, significant improvement in the angular orientation accuracy can be achieved if the measured angular velocities are correctly interpreted as simultaneous and not as sequential rotations.
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