11The Lewisian Gneiss Complex in north-west Scotland is a part of the extensive network of

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The theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour (TRA/TPB) have received substantial research interest from consumer behaviourists. One important area of interest which has not been adequately researched concerns the impact of national culture on the TRA/TPB components and interrelationships. To date, no systematic assessment of the impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships has been undertaken. In order to understand the potential impact of culture on the TRA/TPB model relationships a structured review of TRA/TPB studies is undertaken.Studies that have quantitatively applied the TRA/TPB across at least two countries within a consumption domain since 2000 are reviewed. The authors propose that two of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, individualism and power distance, may moderate the TRA/TPB relationships. The review highlights that the impact of subjective norm on intention varies most across countries, with the relationship between intention and both attitude and perceived behavioural control operating more similarly across country samples. Further, a systematic assessment of variation in the TRA/TPB model relationships via multilevel modelling shows that only the subjective norm-intention relationship varies across the countries studied. The relationship between subjective norm and intention is found to be influenced by power distance, with a stronger relationship evident in high power distance cultures. This review is the first of its kind and is of significance in addressing the emic versus etic nature of the TRA/TPB. Importantly, the article outlines relevant avenues and recommendations for future cross-national research utilizing the TRA/TPB. Key Wordstheory of planned behaviour, cross-country, review, culture, Hofstede 2 INTRODUCTIONThe theories of reasoned action and planned behaviour (TRA/TPB; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen, 1985; 1991) have received substantial research interest. The TPB is an expectancy value model which states that behaviour is a consequence of one's behavioural intention (the cognitive representation of a consumer's motivation to enact the behaviour), which is in turn explained by the consumer's attitude (positive or negative evaluation of undertaking the behaviour), subjective norm (perceived peer pressure to enact the behaviour) and perceived behavioural control (perception of the ease or difficulty in performing the behaviour). The TPB is an extension of the TRA (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) which does not include perceived behavioural control and thus is not designed to explain behaviours that are outside an individual's volitional control. A large number of reviews and meta-analyses have concluded favourably on the ability of the TRA/TPB to explain intention and behaviour across a wide spectrum of contexts (e.g., Albarracin et al., 2001; Armitage and Conner, 2001; Conner and Armitage, 1998; Godin and Kok, 1996; Hagger et al., 2002;Sheeran, 2002;Sheeran and Taylor, 1999;Sheppard et al., 1988;Trafimow et al., 2002;Webb and Sheeran, 2006). There is a ri...

The market place has seen significant growth in the demand for 'ethical' products and services. Yet, consumers often experience knowledge, evaluation and choice uncertainties in decision-making processes, particularly in relation to products such as ethical clothing. The authors explore this pertinent form of consumer uncertainty through three qualitative studies of ethical consumers that examine their approaches to clothing consumption. In-depth interviews and focus groups confirm uncertainty arises; the results also identify the causes and consequences of consumer uncertainty in this context. The causes of uncertainty pertain to issues surrounding complexity, ambiguity, conflict and credibility that give rise to uncertainties that result in delaying purchase decisions, compromising beliefs and negative emotions. This study contributes to literature by offering a holistic understanding of the challenges facing consumers when making ethical choices.

This study compares the reactions towards shock advertising in for‐profit (FP) and not‐for‐profit (NFP) organizations. Although the use of shocking advertisements is a growing phenomenon, the findings regarding the effectiveness of such advertisements remain mixed. Moreover, there is little consideration of the use of these tactics in different organizational contexts and the effect on the consumer. A qualitative methodology was adopted and included the use of focus groups to explore the attitudes and emotional reactions of a range of individuals. The shocking images from both the NFP and FP organizations were deemed successful at capturing the audience's attention. Some images were more ‘shocking’ than others, whereas some were more effective at drawing attention to the product or the cause. Importantly, the use of shock advertising was perceived to be justifiable in the NFP sector but much less so in the FP sector. Reactions were somewhat influenced by both religion and gender; however, it was apparent that this sample were inherently more accepting of shock advertising than expected. Despite the apparent immunity of today's youth to shock tactics, this study found that there are still themes that are considered inappropriate in FP and NFP sectors; these include the use of religious taboos or morally offensive images. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.comEmerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and services.Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. AbstractPurpose -This study seeks to explore the success and failure of two similar small software technology firms from a marketing perspective. Using a dyadic approach, the research aims to compare the degree of customer orientation and innovativeness exhibited in both firms and to understand contributing factors for success and failure. Design/methodology/approach -A two-case comparative case study was employed as the primary method of investigation. Participant-observation in both firms and 22 semi-structured interviews with owner-managers, employees and customers provided a holistic approach to how these firms perceived and prioritised marketing and innovation. Findings -There is a need for small software firms to strike a balance between customer orientation and innovativeness in order to survive. In terms of customer orientation, the findings show that it is not only related to customer contacts and relationships, but is also about delivering on the promise. The small firm's ability to achieve this is highly dependent on managerial style, communication between the firms and their customers, business planning, market research, promotion and firm culture. Practical implications -The benefits of this study, which demonstrates the stark contrast between successful and unsuccessful behaviour, can act as a useful guide for small to medium-sized enterprise (SME) managers who often have technical but less managerial competencies. Originality/value -This is a unique study comparing two software SMEs, particularly one which failed and one which succeeded under similar conditions, thus illustrating good practice by contrasting with bad practice. It also contributes to the literature on how SMEs conduct marketing in the software industry and how to secure small firm sustainability and growth in developing regions.

This research explores how national age stereotypes impact older workers' job‐related perceptions by examining probability based samples across 26 countries taken from the European Social Survey. Multilevel data analysis was undertaken. Results show that, at the individual level, both extrinsic rewards and intrinsic rewards directly impact older workers' job satisfaction. At the country level, significant variations are found in the relationships between job satisfaction and related rewards for older workers across the 26 countries. Society's stereotypical views towards older people explained some of these cross‐country variations. This study contributes to extant literature by explicating the process by which society's age stereotypes and the meta‐stereotypes held by older workers affect how these workers make sense and take meaning out of their job‐related circumstances leading to enhanced or diminished job satisfaction. Implications highlight the need for management to be vigilant in identifying and dealing with age stereotypes in the workplace. Furthermore, managers need to be more aware of the potential harmful consequences arising from negative meta‐stereotypes and should implement strategies to tackle workplace stereotypes that would lead to negative meta‐stereotypes held by older workers.