Interferon (IFN)-related DNA damage resistant signature (IRDS) genes are a subgroup of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) found upregulated in different cancer types, which promotes resistance to DNA damaging chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Along with briefly discussing IFNs and signalling in this review, we highlighted how different IRDS genes are affected by viruses. On the contrary, different strategies adopted to suppress a set of IRDS genes (STAT1, IRF7, OAS family, and BST2) to induce (chemo- and radiotherapy) sensitivity were deliberated. Significant biological pathways that comprise these genes were classified, along with their frequently associated genes (IFIT1/3, IFITM1, IRF7, ISG15, MX1/2 and OAS1/3/L). Major upstream regulators from the IRDS genes were identified, and different IFN types regulating these genes were outlined. Functional interfaces of IRDS proteins with DNA/RNA/ATP/GTP/NADP biomolecules featured a well-defined pharmacophore model for STAT1/IRF7-dsDNA and OAS1/OAS3/IFIH1-dsRNA complexes, as well as for the genes binding to GDP or NADP+. The Lys amino acid was found commonly interacting with the ATP phosphate group from OAS1/EIF2AK2/IFIH1 genes. Considering the premise that targeting IRDS genes mediated resistance offers an efficient strategy to resensitize tumour cells and enhances the outcome of anti-cancer treatment, this review can add some novel insights to the field.

Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2 (NF-E2)-related factor 2) transcription factor is recognized for its pro-survival and cell protective role upon exposure to oxidative, chemical, or metabolic stresses. Nrf2 controls a number of cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, autophagy, lipid synthesis, and metabolism and glucose metabolism and is a target of activation in chronic diseases like diabetes, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory diseases. The dark side of Nrf2 is revealed when its regulation is imbalanced (e.g., via oncogene activation or mutations) and under such conditions constitutively active Nrf2 promotes cancerogenesis, metastasis, and radio- and chemoresistance. When there is no stress, Nrf2 is instantly degraded via Keap1-Cullin 3 (Cul3) pathway but despite this, cells exhibit a basal activation of Nrf2 target genes. It is yet not clear how Nrf2 maintains the expression of its targets under homeostatic conditions. Here, we found a stable 105 kDa Nrf2 form that is resistant to Keap1-Cul3-mediated degradation and translocates to the nucleus of lung cancer cells. RNA-Seq analysis indicate that it might originate from the exon 2 or exon 3-truncated transcripts. This stable 105 kDa Nrf2 form might help explain the constitutive activity of Nrf2 under normal cellular conditions.

In vitro cultures of scarlet flax (Linum grandiflorum L.), an important ornamental flax, have been established as a new possible valuable resource of lignans and neolignans for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory applications. The callogenic potential at different concentrations of α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and thidiazuron (TDZ), alone or in combinations, was evaluated using both L. grandiflorum hypocotyl and cotyledon explants. A higher callus induction frequency was observed on NAA than TDZ, especially for hypocotyl explants, with a maximum frequency (i.e., 95.2%) on 1.0 mg/L of NAA. The presence of NAA (1.0 mg/L) in conjunction with TDZ tended to increase the frequency of callogenesis relative to TDZ alone, but never reached the values observed with NAA alone, thereby indicating the lack of synergy between these two plant growth regulators (PGRs). Similarly, in terms of biomass, NAA was more effective than TDZ, with a maximum accumulation of biomass registered for medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L of NAA using hypocotyls as initial explants (DW: 13.1 g). However, for biomass, a synergy between the two PGRs was observed, particularly for cotyledon-derived explants and for the lowest concentrations of TDZ. The influence of these two PGRs on callogenesis and biomass is discussed. The HPLC analysis confirmed the presence of lignans (secoisolariciresinol (SECO) and lariciresinol (LARI) and neolignan (dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol [DCA]) naturally accumulated in their glycoside forms. Furthermore, the antioxidant activities performed for both hypocotyl- and cotyledon-derived cultures were also found maximal (DPPH: 89.5%, FRAP 866: µM TEAC, ABTS: 456 µM TEAC) in hypocotyl-derived callus cultures as compared with callus obtained from cotyledon explants. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory activities revealed high inhibition (COX-1: 47.4% and COX-2: 51.1%) for extract of hypocotyl-derived callus cultures at 2.5 mg/L TDZ. The anti-inflammatory action against COX-1 and COX-2 was supported by the IC50 values. This report provides a viable approach for enhanced biomass accumulation and efficient production of (neo)lignans in L. grandiflorum callus cultures.

Podophyllotoxin (PPT) is the unique natural precursor of Etoposide, a topoisomerase II inhibitor drug, used in more than a dozen anticancer chemotherapy treatments. Etoposide is appearing on the list of essential medicines of the World Health Organization. PPT is still exclusively extracted from rhizome of Podophyllum species, its main natural source. The supply of Podophyllum plants is limited, since the occurrence of these plant species is scarce, collection is destructive and the plants need a long regeneration period. As a consequence, this species is now endangered and listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trading of Endangered Species. Chemical synthesis of PPT is difficult due to the presence of four contiguous chiral centers and the presence of a base sensitive trans-lactone moiety. Alternatives are being actively searched, but so far, no wild plants have been described with similar PPT production capacity as compared to Podophyllum. However, several plants producing PPT or other related aryltetralin lignans (ATL) have been identified in recent decades, including Linaceae. Given its high lignan accumulation capacity, Linum flavum is considered a promising alternative source of PPT and other related ATL. However, unlike the common flax L. usitatissimum, L. flavum have low agricultural potential (e.g., slow growth and dehiscence of fruits). Therefore, in vitro cultures of plant cells and/or tissues provide an interesting alternative to whole L. flavum plants for the production of these valuable ATL. In particular, L. flavum hairy roots (HRs) accumulate high levels of ATL and it is also possible to further increase this ATL accumulation by the selection of the best genotype, optimization of cultures media and conditions and choice of carbon sources, use of plant growth regulators, elicitor treatments or precursors' addition. To date, the ATL accumulation levels can still be perceived insufficient for L. flavum HRs before being used as a commercially viable biotechnological production system. To reach this goal, a better knowledge of the mechanisms that regulate the metabolic flux of intermediates in the different branches of the ATL metabolic pathway will be an important prerequisite to direct the biosynthesis toward the production of high amount of the desired PPT. In the future, metabolic engineering aiming at constructing the PPT pathway in a heterologous host is very appealing, but for that approach in-depth knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway toward PPT and other related ATL is necessary. AbbreviationsATL aryltetralin lignan B5 Gamborg B5 DPT deoxypodophyllotoxin DW dry weight FW fresh weight LS Linsmaier and Skoog MS Murashige and Skoog MPT methoxypodophyllotoxin MPTG methoxypodophyllotoxin-β-D-glucoside PPT podophyllotoxin PPTG podophyllotoxin-β-D-glucoside WPM Woody plant medium

Viral-derived elements and non-coding RNAs that build up “junk DNA” allow for flexible and context-dependent gene expression. They are extremely dense in the MHC region, accounting for flexible expression of the MHC I, II, and III genes and adjusting the level of immune response to the environmental stimuli. This review brings forward the viral-mediated aspects of the origin and evolution of adaptive immunity and aims to link this perspective with the MHC class I regulation. The complex regulatory network behind MHC expression is largely controlled by virus-derived elements, both as binding sites for immune transcription factors and as sources of regulatory non-coding RNAs. These regulatory RNAs are imbalanced in cancer and associate with different tumor types, making them promising targets for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.

Virus–host interactions form an essential part of every aspect of life, and this review is aimed at looking at the balance between the host and persistent viruses with a focus on the immune system. The virus–host interaction is like a cat-and-mouse game and viruses have developed ingenious mechanisms to manipulate cellular pathways, most notably the major histocompatibility (MHC) class I pathway, to reside within infected cell while evading detection and destruction by the immune system. However, some of the signals sensing and responding to viral infection are derived from viruses and the fact that certain viruses can prevent the infection of others, highlights a more complex coexistence between the host and the viral microbiota. Viral immune evasion strategies also illustrate that processes whereby cells detect and present non-self genetic material to the immune system are interlinked with other cellular pathways. Immune evasion is a target also for cancer cells and a more detailed look at the interfaces between viral factors and components of the MHC class I peptide-loading complex indicates that these interfaces are also targets for cancer mutations. In terms of the immune checkpoint, however, viral and cancer strategies appear different.

Podophyllotoxin (PPT) is the unique natural precursor of Etoposide, a topoisomerase II inhibitor drug, used in more than a dozen anticancer chemotherapy treatments. Etoposide is appearing on the list of essential medicines of the World Health Organization. PPT is still exclusively extracted from the rhizome of Podophyllum species, its main natural source. The supply of Podophyllum hexandrum plants is limited, since the occurrence of these plant species is scarce, collection is destructive, and the plants need a long regeneration period. As a consequence, this species is now endangered and listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trading of Endangered Species. Chemical synthesis of PPT is difficult due to the presence of four contiguous chiral centers and the presence of a base sensitive trans-lactone moiety. Alternatives are being actively searched, but so far, no wild plants have been described with similar PPT production capacity as compared to Podophyllum. However, several plants producing PPT or other related aryltetralin lignans (ATL) have been identified in recent decades, including the Linaceae. Given its high lignan accumulation capacity, Linum flavum is considered a promising alternative source of PPT and other related ATL. However, unlike the common flax L. usitatissimum, L. flavum has a low agricultural potential (e.g., slow growth and dehiscence of fruits). Therefore, in vitro cultures of plant cells and/or tissues provide an interesting alternative to whole L. flavum plants for the production of these valuable ATL. In particular, L. flavum hairy roots (HRs) accumulate high levels of ATL and it is also possible to further increase this ATL accumulation by the selection of the best genotype, optimization of cultures media and conditions and choice of carbon sources, use of plant growth regulators, elicitor treatments, or precursors' addition. To date, the ATL accumulation levels can still be perceived insufficient for L. flavum HRs before being used as a commercially viable biotechnological production system. To reach this goal, a better knowledge of the mechanisms that regulate the metabolic flux of intermediates in the different branches of the ATL metabolic pathway will be an important prerequisite to direct the biosynthesis toward the production of a high amount of the desired PPT. In the future, metabolic engineering aiming at constructing the PPT pathway in a heterologous host is very appealing, but for that approach in-depth knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway toward PPT and other related ATL is necessary.

The Nrf2 pathway is an essential defense pathway in a cell. It responds to oxidative and electrophilic stress via de-repression of Nrf2 from Keap1-Cul3-mediated degradation, accumulation of Nrf2 in the nucleus and transcriptional activation of a number of detoxifying and cell protective Nrf2 target genes. Here we report that normal and cancer cells also express the N-terminally truncated Nrf2 isoform (ΔN-Nrf2), which originates from an alternative promoter. Co-immunoprecipitation together with molecular dynamics simulation showed that the binding between ΔN-Nrf2 and Keap1 is impaired, resulting in the much higher stability of this form. ΔN-Nrf2 is retained in the cytoplasm in response to electrophilic stress, indicating that it does not regulate transcription under the same stress stimuli as the full-length Nrf2. Altogether this data suggests that Nrf2 has other functions in cells than transcriptional activation of genes, which most probably rely on the protein-protein interactions in the cytoplasm. The regulation between these functions takes place on the level of transcription.