Blockchain is increasingly used for registering, authenticating and validating digital assets (financial assets, real estate, etc.) and transactions, governing interactions, recording data and managing identification among multiple parties in a trusted, decentralized, and secure manner. Today, a large variety of blockchain technologies is expanding in order to fulfill technical and non-technical needs and requirements. Within this context, determining and most importantly evaluating the characteristics/performance of a given blockchain platform is crucial for system designers before deploying it. A number of blockchain simulators have been proposed in the literature over the past few years, as reviewed in this paper, but are often limited in several respects (lack of extensibility, do not allow for evaluating all aspects of a blockchain. . . ). This paper extends and improves a state-of-the-art simulator (BlockSim) into a new simulator called ''BlockPerf'' to overcome those limitations. Both simulators are compared based on a real-life (benchmarking) Bitcoin scenario, whose results show that BlockPerf provides more realistic results than BlockSim, improving by around ≈50% (in average) the outcomes.INDEX TERMS Blockchain, simulation, emulation, peer-to-peer, consensus, performance. I. INTRODUCTIONBlockchain is increasingly applied to all sectors of our daily life, spanning from financial applications [1], [2] to industrial ones [3], [4]. Blockchain technology is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that uses a ledger stored in a distributed manner and shared among its participants in the network [5].Decentralization, consistency, anonymity and traceability are its intrinsic features making it an interesting technology for many applications in which such aspects must be tackled. However, it is never an easy task for researchers, developers, and practitioners to decide what blockchain technologies) they should select/implement, as application requirements may significantly vary from one application to another (e.g., in terms of what data should be stored, the number of transactions to be performed, etc.), without speaking about the multiple constraints of networking, computing power and communication that the application may face [6]. Several blockchain performance assessment frameworks have beenThe associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and approving it for publication was Jesus Felez .
We introduce a set of four twisted Edwards curves that satisfy common security requirements and allow for fast implementations of scalar multiplication on 8, 16, and 32-bit processors. Our curves are defined by an equation of the form −x 2 + y 2 = 1 + dx 2 y 2 over a prime field Fp, where d is a small non-square modulo p. The underlying prime fields are based on "pseudo-Mersenne" primes given by p = 2 k − c and have in common that p ≡ 5 mod 8, k is a multiple of 32 minus 1, and c is at most eight bits long. Due to these common features, our primes facilitate a parameterized implementation of the low-level arithmetic so that one and the same arithmetic function is able to process operands of different length. Each of the twisted Edwards curves we introduce in this paper is birationally equivalent to a Montgomery curve of the form −(A + 2)y 2 = x 3 + Ax 2 + x where 4/(A + 2) is small. Even though this contrasts with the usual practice of choosing A such that (A + 2)/4 is small, we show that the Montgomery form of our curves allows for an equally efficient implementation of point doubling as Curve25519. The four curves we put forward roughly match the common security levels of 80, 96, 112 and 128 bits. In addition, their Weierstraß representations are isomorphic to curves of the form y 2 = x 3 − 3x + b so as to facilitate inter-operability with TinyECC and other legacy software.
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