Motivated by several rulings in United States courts concerning expert testimony in general and handwriting testimony in particular, we undertook a study to objectively validate the hypothesis that handwriting is individualistic. Handwriting samples of one thousand five hundred individuals, representative of the US population with respect to gender, age, ethnic groups, etc., were obtained. Analyzing differences in handwriting was done by using computer algorithms for extracting features from scanned images of handwriting. Attributes characteristic of the handwriting were obtained, e.g., line s e p aration, slant, character shapes, etc. These attributes, which are a subset of attributes used by expert document examiners, were used to quantitatively establish individuality by using machine learning approaches. Using global attributes of handwriting and very few characters in the writing, the ability to determine the writer with a high degree of confidence was established. The work is a step towards providing scientific support for admitting handwriting evidence in court. The mathematical approach and the resulting software also have the promise of aiding the expert document examiner.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) involves the nonsexual transmission of genetic material across species boundaries. Although often detected in prokaryotes, examples of HGT involving animals are relatively rare, and any evolutionary advantage conferred to the recipient is typically obscure. We identified a gene ( HhMAN1 ) from the coffee berry borer beetle, Hypothenemus hampei , a devastating pest of coffee, which shows clear evidence of HGT from bacteria. HhMAN1 encodes a mannanase, representing a class of glycosyl hydrolases that has not previously been reported in insects. Recombinant HhMAN1 protein hydrolyzes coffee berry galactomannan, the major storage polysaccharide in this species and the presumed food of H. hampei . HhMAN1 was found to be widespread in a broad biogeographic survey of H. hampei accessions, indicating that the HGT event occurred before radiation of the insect from West Africa to Asia and South America. However, the gene was not detected in the closely related species H. obscurus (the tropical nut borer or “false berry borer”), which does not colonize coffee beans. Thus, HGT of HhMAN1 from bacteria represents a likely adaptation to a specific ecological niche and may have been promoted by intensive agricultural practices.

SUMMARYEvasion or active suppression of host defenses are critical strategies employed by biotrophic phytopathogens and hemibiotrophs whose infection mechanism includes sequential biotrophic and necrotrophic stages. Although defense suppression by secreted effector proteins has been well studied in bacteria, equivalent systems in fungi and oomycetes are poorly understood. We report the characterization of SNE1 (suppressor of necrosis 1), a gene encoding a secreted protein from the hemibiotrophic oomycete Phytophthora infestans that is specifically expressed at the transcriptional level during biotrophic growth within the host plant tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Using transient expression assays, we show that SNE1 suppresses the action of secreted cell death-inducing effectors from Phytophthora that are expressed during the necrotrophic growth phase, as well as programmed cell death mediated by a range of Avr-R protein interactions. We also report that SNE1 contains predicted NLS motifs and translocates to the plant nucleus in transient expression studies. A conceptual model is presented in which the sequential coordinated secretion of antagonistic effectors by P. infestans first suppresses, but then induces, host cell death, thereby providing a highly regulated means to control the transition from biotrophy to necrotrophy.

From simply skimming through the abstract lists of more or less any collection of both basic and applied plant-related journals, it is immediately apparent that the plant cell wall represents a nexus of many fields of research: growth and development, plant-pathogen interactions, abiotic stress, self-and interorganismal recognition, signaling systems, numerous primary and specialized metabolic processes, biomaterials and bioproducts, and many others. That said, and to deal with an issue of semantics, while the term cell wall can refer specifically to the structural matrix that surrounds all plant cells, for the purposes of this Update it is used more broadly, also to include the apoplast, or extracellular environment. Given its multifunctional nature then, it is not surprising that the apoplast houses a dynamic and complex proteome, and the compendium of cell wall proteins continues to grow as researchers from disparate disciplines discover new roles for extracellular proteins. In addition, however, as cell wall proteomics projects develop and the subcellular localizations of an ever-growing list of plant proteins are determined, a number of surprises have been thrown up, both in terms of the identity of secreted proteins and the trafficking pathways that they follow. The purpose of this Update is to give some examples of previously unsuspected aspects of plant cell wall protein trafficking that are challenging longheld assumptions, rather than to provide an exhaustive review, and to highlight some questions that can be categorized into the "who, how, where, and when" of the cell wall proteome.

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Hemibiotrophs, such as Phytophthora infestans, exhibit distinct phases of their life cycle: an early asymptomatic biotrophic phase and a late necrotrophic stage that is characterized by tissue degradation and disease symptoms. To date, little is known of the molecular mechanisms that promote each distinct phase, nor those that mediate the transition between the two. We hypothesized that these phytopathogens might secrete distinct classes of effector proteins that first suppress plant defense responses and associated programmed cell death (PCD), and later induce large scale necrosis. To this end, we have identified proteins that are secreted by P. infestans early or late in the infection cycle. Recently we described the characterization of SNE1, which is specifically expressed during early biotrophic growth in the host plant tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). We found that SNE1 suppresses the action of necrosis-inducing effectors (Nep1-like proteins), including PiNPP1.1 and PsojNIP, which are secreted by Phytophthora during necrotrophic growth, as well as PCD mediated by a broad spectrum of Avr-R protein interactions. This suggests that SNE1 and PiNPP1.1 act antagonistically, thereby providing a highly regulated means to control the transition from biotrophy to necrotrophy.

PURPOSEThe aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dimensional stability of splinting material on the accuracy of master casts.MATERIALS AND METHODSA stainless steel metal model with 6 implants embedded was used as a master model. Implant level impressions were made after square impression copings were splinted using 5 different techniques as follows. (1) Splinted with autopolymerizing resin and sectioned, reconnected to compensate polymerization shrinkage before the impression procedure. (2) Splinted with autopolymerizing resin just before impression procedure. (3) Primary impression made with impression plaster and secondary impression were made over with polyether impression material. (4) Splinted with impression plaster. (5) Splinted with VPS bite registration material. From master model, 5 impressions and 5 experimental casts, total 25 casts were made for each of 5 splinting methods. The distortion values of each splinting methods were measured using coordinate measuring machine, capable of recordings in the x-, y-, z-axes. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at a confidence level of 95% was used to evaluate the data and Tukey's studentized range test was used to determine significant differences between the groups.RESULTSGroup 1 showed best accuracy followed by Group 3 & 4. Group 2 and 5 showed relatively larger distortion value than other groups. No significant difference was found between group 3, 4, 5 in x-axis, group 2, 3, 4 in y-axis and group 1, 3, 4, 5 in z-axis (P<.0001).CONCLUSIONBoth Splinting impression copings with autopolymerizing resin following compensation of polymerization shrinkage and splinting method with impression plaster can enhance the accuracy of master cast and impression plaster can be used simple and effective splinting material for implant impression procedure.

Complex suites of proteins that are secreted by plants and phytopathogens into the plant apoplast play crucial roles in surveillance, assault, defense, and counter-defense. High-throughput genome-scale strategies are being developed to better understand the nature of these "secretomes" and the identity of pathogen-derived effector proteins that subvert plant defenses and promote pathogenicity. Although combined bioinformatic and experimental approaches recently have provided comprehensive coverage of secreted proteins from bacterial phytopathogens, far less is known about the secretomes and batteries of effectors of eukaryotic phytopathogens; notably fungi and oomycetes. The yeast secretion trap (YST) represents a potentially valuable technique to simultaneously target pathogen and host secretomes in infected plant material. A YST screen, using a new vector system, was applied to study the interaction between tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, revealing sets of genes encoding secreted proteins from both pathogen and host. Most of those from the oomycete had no identifiable function and were detectable in planta only during pathogenesis, underlining the value of YST as a tool to identify new candidate effectors and pathogenicity factors. In addition, the majority of the P. infestans proteins had homologs in the genomes of the related oomycetes R. sojae and P. ramorum.