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Solid freeform techniques are revolutionising technology with great potential to fabricate highly organized biodegradable scaffolds for damaged tissues and organs. Scaffolds fabricated via Solid freeform (SFF) techniques have more pronounced effect in bone tissue engineering. SFF techniques produce various types of scaffolds from different biomaterials with specific pore size, geometries, orientation, interconnectivity and anatomical shapes. Scaffolds needs to be designed from such biomaterials which can attach directly to natural tissues and mimic its properties, so ideally mechanical properties of scaffolds should be same as that of regenerating tissues for best results. The scaffolds designed without optimized mechanical properties would lead to the reduced nutrition diffusion within tissue engineered constructs (TECs) causing tissue necrosis. These scaffolds are mainly processed from ceramics and polymers like calcium phosphate, polydioxane, €-polycaprolactone, polylactic and polyglycolic acids etc. While, hydrogel scaffolds provide bridge for encapsulated cells and tissues to integrate with natural ECM. Likewise, 2D images from radiography were not sufficient for the prediction of the brain structure, cranial nerves, vessel and architecture of base of the skull and bones, which became possible using the 3D prototyping technologies. Any misrepresentation can lead to fatal outcomes. Biomodelling from these techniques for spinal surgery and preoperative planning are making its way toward successful treatment of several spinal deformities and spinal tumor. In this review we explored laser based and printing SFF techniques following its methodologies, principles and most recent areas of application with its achievements and possible challenges faced during its applications.

Biofilms are the aggregation of microbial cells, which are associated with the surface in almost an irreversible manner. It exists in variety of forms like dental plaque, pond scum, or the slimy build up in sink. Biofilm formation involves sequence of steps like conditioning, attachment, metabolism, and detachment. Biofilm consists of water channels, EPS (Exopolysaccharide), and eDNA (Environmental DNA), which plays an important role in nutrient circulation, its development, and structure stabilization. Resistance of planktonic bacteria against antimicrobial agents gets increased on the formation of biofilm, which may be the presence of diffusive barrier EPS or neutralizing enzyme, cells undergoing starvation, or due to spore formation. There are numerous factors, which affects biofilm formation such as substratum effects, conditioning film on substratum, hydrodynamics, characteristics of the aqueous medium, cell characteristics, and environmental factors. Biofilm can cause industrial, medical, and household damage and is a reason for loss of billions of dollars every year. Development of biofilm on catheters, medical implants, and devices is a major cause of infections and diseases in humans. Examples include Plaque, Native Valve Endocarditis, Otitis media, Prostatitis, Cystic fibrosis, Periodontitis, Osteomyelitis, and many more.

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