The pantropical genus Begonia is the sixth-largest genus of flowering plants, including 1870 species. The sections of Begonia are used frequently as analogues to genera in other families but, despite their taxonomic utility, few of the current sections have been examined in the light of molecular phylogenetic analyses. We present herein the largest, most representative phylogeny of Begonia published to date and a subsequent provisional sectional classification of the genus. We utilised three plastid markers for 574 species and 809 accessions of Begonia and used Hillebrandia as an outgroup to produce a dated phylogeny. The relationships between some species and sections are poorly resolved, but many sections and deeper nodes receive strong support. We recognise 70 sections of Begonia including 5 new sections: Astrothrix, Ephemera, Jackia, Kollmannia, and Stellandrae; 4 sections are reinstated from synonymy: Australes, Exalabegonia, Latistigma and Pereira; and 5 sections are newly synonymised. The new sectional classification is discussed with reference to identifying characters and previous classifications.

BackgroundWild edible plants (WEP) provide staple and supplement foods, as well as cash income to local communities, thus favouring food security. However, WEP are largely ignored in land use planning and implementation, economic development, and biodiversity conservation. Moreover, WEP-related traditional knowledge is rapidly eroding. Therefore, we designed this study to fulfill a part of the knowledge gap by providing data on diversity, traditional knowledge, economic potential, and conservation value of WEP from Nepal.MethodsThe information was collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Percentage of general utility of the plants among the study communities was evaluated using the Chi-square (χ2) test of homogeneity. High priority species were identified after consultation with the local stakeholders followed by scoring based on defined criteria. Pairwise ranking was used to assess ethnoecological knowledge to identify the threats to WEP.ResultsWe documented 81 species belonging to Angiosperms (74), Pteridophytes (5), and Fungi (2). Most of the species were used as fruits (44 species) followed by vegetables (36). Almost half of the species (47%) were also used for purposes other than food. From the species with market value (37% of the total), 10 were identified as high priority species. Pairwise ranking revealed that WEP are threatened mostly by habitat destruction, land-use change and over-harvesting. Some of these plants are crop wild relatives and could thus be used for crop improvement. Interestingly, our study also revealed that young people who spend most of the time in the forest as herdsmen are particularly knowledgeable of wild fruit plants.ConclusionWe provide empirical evidence from a relatively large area of Nepal about diversity and status of WEP, as well as methodological insights about the proper knowledge holders to consult. Regarding the unique and important knowledge they have on WEP, young people should be included when recruiting participants to ethnobotanical studies or to any type of consultation about WEP. The habit of using wild edible plants is still alive and is a traditional culinary practice that demonstrates rich traditional knowledge of local people. WEP were found to be important for livelihood as well as showing great potential for crop improvement. Priority species should be promoted for income generation activities through sustainable collection and trade. Communities should engage in minimizing the threats to these valuable resources.

Aim The complex palaeogeography of the Malesian archipelago, characterized by the evolution of an ever-changing mosaic of terrestrial and marine areas throughout the Cenozoic, provides the geographic backdrop for the remarkable diversification of Malesian Begonia (> 450 species). This study aimed to investigate the origin of Malesian Begonia, the directionality of dispersal events within the Malesian archipelago and the impact of ancient water gaps on colonization patterns, and to identify drivers of diversification.Location Asia, Southeast Asia, Malesia.Methods Plastid DNA sequence data of representatives of all families of the Cucurbitales and Fagales (matK, rbcL, trnL intron, trnL-F spacer, 4076 aligned positions, 92 taxa) and a sample of all major Asian Begonia sections (ndhA intron, ndhF-rpl32 spacer, rpl32-trnL spacer, 4059 aligned positions, 112 taxa) were analysed under an uncorrelated-rates relaxed molecular clock model to estimate the age of the Begonia crown group divergence and divergence ages within Asian Begonia. Ancestral areas were reconstructed using a likelihood approach implementing a dispersal-extinction-cladogenesis model, and with a Bayesian approach to dispersal-vicariance analysis.

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Natural antioxidants present in several medicinal plants are responsible for inhibiting the harmful effects of oxidative stress. These plants contain polyphenols and flavonoids that act as free radical scavengers and reduce oxidative stress and may be an alternative remedy to cure various harmful human diseases. This study aims to quantify the total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC) and antioxidant properties of methanol extracts of fruits, seeds, and bark of an important medicinal and aromatic plant, Zanthoxylum armatum collected from wild and cultivated populations in Nepal. TPC was determined by Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method using gallic acid as standard, and various concentrations of the extract solutions were measured at 760 nm. TFC was calculated by aluminum chloride colorimetric assay. Quercetin was used as standard, and the absorbance was measured at 510 nm. The antioxidant potential of the different extracts was estimated by DPPH free radical scavenging assay, and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. The highest TPC value was 226.3 ± 1.14 mg GAE/g in wild fruits, and the lowest was 137.72 ± 4.21 mg GAE/g in cultivated seeds. Similarly, the highest TFC value was 135.17 ± 2.02 mg QE/g in cultivated fruits, and the lowest was 76.58 ± 4.18 mg QE/g in cultivated seeds. The extracts showed variable antioxidant properties. The fruits exhibited excellent antioxidant properties with IC50 values of 40.62 μg/mL and 45.62 μg/mL for cultivated and wild fruits, respectively. Similarly, the IC50 values of the bark were 63.39 μg/mL and 67.82 μg/mL, respectively, for cultivated and wild samples. And the least antioxidant capacity was shown by the seeds extract with IC50 values of 86.75 μg/mL and 94.49 μg/mL for wild and cultivated seeds, respectively. The IC50 value of the standard ascorbic acid was 36.22 μg/mL. Different extracts of Z. armatum contain considerable amount of phenols and flavonoids, including antioxidant properties, suggesting the potential use of this species in pharmacy and phytotherapy as a source of natural antioxidants.

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Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide food as well as cash income for indigenous peoples and local communities, and they are of great importance in ensuring local food security. However, their uses and availability are poorly documented. This study aimed to enumerate WEP diversity and status of WEPs in a part of the Annapurna Conservation Area, Sikles region, where the population is dominated by the Gurung community. Ethnobotanical data were collected using guided field walks, semi-structured interviews, and field observation. The informant consensus method was employed and group discussions were conducted for triangulation of the information. Free listing and identification tests were performed to assess the knowledge of the informants. Both descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotanical methods were used for data analysis. A total of 72 wild food species belonging to 46 families and 61 genera were reported from the study area. Asparagaceae and Rosaceae were the dominant families, and herbs were the dominant life form. Fruits (34 species) were the most frequently used plant parts, followed by young shoots (16 species). Most edible plants were consumed in summer and during rainy seasons. While the age and type of informants had an influence on the number of enumerated plants, gender did not. Key informants and people aged 30–45 reported more species than other groups of respondents. Most of the knowledge about the use of WEPs was acquired from parents and relatives. The consumption of these plants was attributed to diversifying cuisine, spicing staple food, nutri-medicinal values, and cultural practices. People perceived the availability of WEPs to be gradually decreasing. However, WEPs are still abundant and diverse in the study area, and knowledge on their use is well-preserved. These resources provide food and nutrients to local people and can also be a source of cash income. Therefore, the documented information on WEPs may serve as baseline data for further studies on nutritional values and provide guidelines for safe collection. The results also revealed that many wild species are under growing pressure from various anthropogenic factors, suggesting effective community engagement is required for their conservation.