The utilization of remote sensing technologies for archaeology was motivated by their ability to map large areas within a short time at a reasonable cost. With recent advances in platform and sensing technologies, uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAV) equipped with imaging and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems have emerged as a promising tool due to their low cost, ease of deployment/operation, and ability to provide high-resolution geospatial data. In some cases, archaeological sites might be covered with vegetation, which makes the identification of below-canopy structures quite challenging. The ability of LiDAR energy to travel through gaps within vegetation allows for the derivation of returns from hidden structures below the canopy. This study deals with the development and deployment of a UAV system equipped with imaging and LiDAR sensing technologies assisted by an integrated Global Navigation Satellite System/Inertial Navigation System (GNSS/INS) for the archaeological mapping of Dana Island, Turkey. Data processing strategies are also introduced for the detection and visualization of underground structures. More specifically, a strategy has been developed for the robust identification of ground/terrain surface in a site characterized by steep slopes and dense vegetation, as well as the presence of numerous underground structures. The derived terrain surface is then used for the automated detection/localization of underground structures, which are then visualized through a web portal. The proposed strategy has shown a promising detection ability with an F1-score of approximately 92%.
LiDAR technology is rapidly evolving as various new systems emerge, providing unprecedented data to characterize forest vertical structure. Data from different LiDAR systems present distinct characteristics owing to a combined effect of sensor specifications, data acquisition strategies, as well as forest conditions such as tree density and canopy cover. Comparative analysis of multi-platform, multi-resolution, and multi-temporal LiDAR data provides guidelines for selecting appropriate LiDAR systems and data processing tools for different research questions, and thus is of crucial importance. This study presents a comprehensive comparison of point clouds from four systems, linear and Geiger-mode LiDAR from manned aircraft and multi-beam LiDAR on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), and in-house developed Backpack, with the consideration of different forest canopy cover scenarios. The results suggest that the proximal Backpack LiDAR can provide the finest level of information, followed by UAV LiDAR, Geiger-mode LiDAR, and linear LiDAR. The emerging Geiger-mode LiDAR can capture a significantly higher level of detail while operating at a higher altitude as compared to the traditional linear LiDAR. The results also show: (1) canopy cover percentage has a critical impact on the ability of aerial and terrestrial systems to acquire information corresponding to the lower and upper portions of the tree canopy, respectively; (2) all the systems can obtain adequate ground points for digital terrain model generation irrespective of canopy cover conditions; and (3) point clouds from different systems are in agreement within a ±3 cm and ±7 cm range along the vertical and planimetric directions, respectively.
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