Humanity now uses 26 percent of total terrestrial evapotranspiration and 54 percent of runoff that is geographically and temporally accessible. Increased use of evapotranspiration will confer minimal benefits globally because most land suitable for rain-fed agriculture is already in production. New dam construction could increase accessible runoff by about 10 percent over the next 30 years, whereas population is projected to increase by more than 45 percent during that period.

Abstract. Renewable fresh water comprises a tiny fraction of the global water pool but is the foundation for life in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The benefits to humans of renewable fresh water include water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses, for production of fish and waterfowl, and for such instream uses as recreation, transportation, and waste disposal.In the coming century, climate change and a growing imbalance among freshwater supply, consumption, and population will alter the water cycle dramatically. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. In the next 30 yr alone, accessible runoff is unlikely to increase more than 10%, but the earth's population is projected to rise by approximately one-third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce freshwater ecosystem services, increase the number of aquatic species facing extinction, and further fragment wetlands, rivers, deltas, and estuaries.Based on the scientific evidence currently available, we conclude that: (1) over half of accessible freshwater runoff globally is already appropriated for human use; (2) more than 1 ϫ 10 9 people currently lack access to clean drinking water and almost 3 ϫ 10 9 people lack basic sanitation services; (3) because the human population will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible fresh water, per capita availability of fresh water will decrease in the coming century; (4) climate change will cause a general intensification of the earth's hydrological cycle in the next 100 yr, with generally increased precipitation, evapotranspiration, and occurrence of storms, and significant changes in biogeochemical processes influencing water quality; (5) at least 90% of total water discharge from U.S. rivers is strongly affected by channel fragmentation from dams, reservoirs, interbasin diversions, and irrigation; and (6) globally, 20% of freshwater fish species are threatened or extinct, and freshwater species make up 47% of all animals federally endangered in the United States.The growing demands on freshwater resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management. Better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources will help to allocate water more efficiently among competing needs. Currently in the United States, at least six federal departments and 20 agencies share responsibilities for various aspects of the hydrologic cycle. Coordination by a single panel with members drawn from each department, or by a central agency, would acknowledge the diverse pressures on freshwater systems and could lead to the development of a well-coordinated national plan.

Plasma membrane-borne pattern recognition receptors, which recognize microbe-associated molecular patterns and endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns, provide the first line of defense in innate immunity. In plants, leucine-rich repeat receptor kinases fulfill this role, as exemplified by FLS2 and EFR, the receptors for the microbe-associated molecular patterns flagellin and elongation factor Tu. Here we examined the perception of the damage-associated molecular pattern peptide 1 (AtPep1), an endogenous peptide of Arabidopsis identified earlier and shown to be perceived by the leucine-rich repeat protein kinase PEPR1. Using seedling growth inhibition, elicitation of an oxidative burst and induction of ethylene biosynthesis, we show that wild type plants and the pepr1 and pepr2 mutants, affected in PEPR1 and in its homologue PEPR2, are sensitive to AtPep1, but that the double mutant pepr1/pepr2 is completely insensitive. As a central body of our study, we provide electrophysiological evidence that at the level of the plasma membrane, AtPep1 triggers a receptor-dependent transient depolarization through activation of plasma membrane anion channels, and that this effect is absent in the double mutant pepr1/pepr2. The double mutant also fails to respond to AtPep2 and AtPep3, two distant homologues of AtPep1 on the basis of homology screening, implying that the PEPR1 and PEPR2 are responsible for their perception too. Our findings provide a basic framework to study the biological role of AtPep1-related danger signals and their cognate receptors.In plant immunity, a first line of defense is based on the perception of a group of conserved, pathogen-derived molecules, called microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) 4 by pattern recognition receptors, which cause the expression of defense genes as well as metabolic rearrangements, and ultimately activate basal resistance to potential pathogens (1, 2). In Arabidopsis, the best studied MAMPs are the bacterial flagellin (active epitope flg22) and elongation factor Tu (active EF-Tu epitopes elf13, elf18, and elf26), which are recognized by their cognate leucine rich repeat-receptor-like kinases FLS2 (flagellin-sensitive 2) and EFR (EF-Tu receptor), respectively (reviewed in Ref. 1). Perception of these MAMPs leads to a set of responses that can be used to monitor the recognition process, including the triggering of ion fluxes, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), accumulation of ethylene, and finally up-regulation of defense-related genes; investment into increased resistance against bacterial pathogens negatively feeds back on plant growth (3). In addition to these MAMP/ pattern recognition receptor systems, another class of surveillance system recognizes plant-derived molecules previously known as "endogenous elicitors" and now as DAMPs (damageassociated molecular patterns): DAMPs are endogenous molecules that newly appear in the intercellular space in response to the damage caused by a pathogen attack, e.g. cell wall fragments or effectors deri...

Our results provide evidence for a new regulatory mechanism for innate immune receptors with BIR2 acting as a negative regulator of PAMP-triggered immunity by limiting BAK1-receptor complex formation in the absence of ligands.

Fresh water is a renewable resource, but it is also finite. Around the world, there are now numerous signs that human water use exceeds sustainable levels. Groundwater depletion, low or nonexistent river flows, and worsening pollution levels are among the more obvious indicators of water stress. In many areas, extracting more water for human uses jeopardizes the health of vital aquatic ecosystems. Satisfying the increased demands for food, water, and material goods of a growing global population while at the same time protecting the ecological services provided by natural water ecosystems requires new approaches to using and managing fresh water. In this article, I propose a global effort (1) to ensure that freshwater ecosystems receive the quantity, quality, and timing of flows needed for them to perform their ecological functions and (2) to work toward a goal of doubling water productivity. Meeting these challenges will require policies that promote rather than discourage water efficiency, as well as new partnerships that cross disciplinary and professional boundaries.

Renewable fresh water comprises a tiny fraction of the global water pool but is the foundation for life in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The benefits to humans of renewable fresh water include water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses, for production of fish and waterfowl, and for such instream uses as recreation, transportation, and waste disposal. In the coming century, climate change and a growing imbalance among freshwater supply, consumption, and population will alter the water cycle dramatically. Many regions of the world are already limited by the amount and quality of available water. In the next 30 yr alone, accessible runoff is unlikely to increase more than 10%, but the earth's population is projected to rise by approximately one‐third. Unless the efficiency of water use rises, this imbalance will reduce freshwater ecosystem services, increase the number of aquatic species facing extinction, and further fragment wetlands, rivers, deltas, and estuaries. Based on the scientific evidence currently available, we conclude that: (1) over half of accessible freshwater runoff globally is already appropriated for human use; (2) more than 1 × 109 people currently lack access to clean drinking water and almost 3 × 109 people lack basic sanitation services; (3) because the human population will grow faster than increases in the amount of accessible fresh water, per capita availability of fresh water will decrease in the coming century; (4) climate change will cause a general intensification of the earth's hydrological cycle in the next 100 yr, with generally increased precipitation, evapotranspiration, and occurrence of storms, and significant changes in biogeochemical processes influencing water quality; (5) at least 90% of total water discharge from U.S. rivers is strongly affected by channel fragmentation from dams, reservoirs, interbasin diversions, and irrigation; and (6) globally, 20% of freshwater fish species are threatened or extinct, and freshwater species make up 47% of all animals federally endangered in the United States. The growing demands on freshwater resources create an urgent need to link research with improved water management. Better monitoring, assessment, and forecasting of water resources will help to allocate water more efficiently among competing needs. Currently in the United States, at least six federal departments and 20 agencies share responsibilities for various aspects of the hydrologic cycle. Coordination by a single panel with members drawn from each department, or by a central agency, would acknowledge the diverse pressures on freshwater systems and could lead to the development of a well‐coordinated national plan.

Rivers provide a special suite of goods and services valued highly by the public that are inextricably linked to their flow dynamics and the interaction of flow with the landscape. Yet most rivers are within watersheds that are stressed to some extent by human activities including development, dams, or extractive uses. Climate change will add to and magnify risks that are already present through its potential to alter rainfall, temperature, runoff patterns, and to disrupt biological communities and sever ecological linkages. We provide an overview of the predicted impacts based on published studies to date, discuss both reactive and proactive management responses, and outline six categories of management actions that will contribute substantially to the protection of valuable river assets. To be effective, management must be place-based focusing on local watershed scales that are most relevant to management scales. The first priority should be enhancing environmental monitoring of changes and river responses coupled with the development of local scenario-building exercises that take land use and water use into account. Protection of a greater number of rivers and riparian corridors is essential, as is conjunctive groundwater/surface water management. This will require collaborations among multiple partners in the respective river basins and wise land use planning to minimize additional development in watersheds with valued rivers. Ensuring environmental flows by purchasing or leasing water rights and/or altering reservoir release patterns will be needed for many rivers. Implementing restoration projects proactively can be used to protect existing resources so that expensive reactive restoration to repair damage associated with a changing climate is minimized. Special attention should be given to diversifying and replicating habitats of special importance and to monitoring populations at high risk or of special value so that management interventions can occur if the risks to habitats or species increase significantly over time.

Healthy watersheds provide valuable services to society, including the supply and purification of fresh water. Because these natural ecosystem services lie outside the traditional domain of commercial markets, they are undervalued and underprotected. With population and development pressures leading to the rapid modification of watershed lands, valuable hydrological services are being lost, which poses risks to the quality and cost of drinking water and the reliability of water supplies. Increasing the scale and scope of programmes to protect hydrological services requires policies that harmonize land uses in watersheds with the provision of these important natural services. This article summarizes key attributes of hydrological services and their economic benefits; presents a spectrum of institutional mechanisms for safeguarding those services; discusses programmes in Quito (Ecuador), Costa Rica and New York City; and offers some lessons learned and recommendations for achieving higher levels of watershed protection.