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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on young children's learning at home and in early childhood settings, in order to identify key caregiving practices which support the learning and development of children under three. Design/methodology/approach – Starting with well-known reviews carried out in England, the USA, Australia and New Zealand, the authors searched the literature for evidence of the developmental needs of babies and toddlers. They then drew on the psychological and educational literatures to identify key practices supporting physical development, learning and communication, using expert review to build on the scientific research in areas where evidence was sparse. Findings – The review explores three key areas of practice: play-based activities and routines; support for communication and language; and opportunities to move and be physically active. Research limitations/implications – This review is not systematic or exhaustive, but aims to integrate current evidence within these three key areas in a succinct and accessible manner. The authors recognise that there are many other dimensions of effective practice, many of which are addressed elsewhere in this special edition, as well as myriad other influences on children's development, including social, family and environmental factors. Originality/value – Worldwide, growing numbers of children under three are experiencing non-parental care in early childhood settings. In comparison to evidence for preschool children, the literature on effective practice for under-threes is sparse. Given the urgent need for information to guide policy and practice, this paper provides a starting point and calls for a multi-source approach to strengthening the evidence base.

Polysemy, or the property of words having multiple meanings, is a prevalent feature of vocabulary. In this study we validated a new measure of polysemy knowledge for children with English as an additional language (EAL) and a first language (EL1) and examined the relationship between polysemy knowledge and age, language status, and reading comprehension. Participants were 112 British children aged 5 to 6 (n = 61) or 8 to 9 years (n = 51), 37% of whom had EAL (n = 41). Participants completed the new measure of knowledge of polysemes, along with other measures of language, literacy and cognitive ability. The new measure was reliable and valid with EAL and EL1 children. Age and language status predicted children's polyseme knowledge. Polyseme knowledge uniquely contributed to reading comprehension after controlling for age, language status, non-verbal intelligence, time reading in English, and breadth of vocabulary. This research underscores the importance of polysemy for children's linguistic development.