The mechanisms by which environmental stress regulates cell cycle progression are poorly understood. In fission yeast, we show that Srk1 kinase, which associates with the stress-activated p38/Sty1 MAP kinase, regulates the onset of mitosis by inhibiting the Cdc25 phosphatase. Srk1 is periodically active in G2, and its overexpression causes cell cycle arrest in late G2 phase, whereas cells lacking srk1 enter mitosis prematurely. We find that Srk1 interacts with and phosphorylates Cdc25 at the same sites phosphorylated by the Chk1 and Cds1 (Chk2) kinases and that this phosphorylation is necessary for Srk1 to delay mitotic entry. Phosphorylation by Srk1 causes Cdc25 to bind to Rad24, a 14-3-3 protein family member, and accumulation of Cdc25 in the cytoplasm. However, Srk1 does not regulate Cdc25 in response to replication arrest or DNA damage but, rather, during a normal cell cycle and in response to nongenotoxic environmental stress.

The eukaryotic cell cycle comprises an ordered series of events, orchestrated by the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks), leading from chromosome replication during S-phase to their segregation in mitosis. The unidirectionality of cell cycle transitions is fundamental for successful completion of this cycle. It is thought that irrevocable proteolytic degradation of key cell cycle regulators makes cell cycle transitions irreversible, thereby enforcing directionality1-3. Here, we have experimentally examined the contribution of cyclin proteolysis to the irreversibility of mitotic exit, the transition from high mitotic Cdk activity back to low activity in G1. We show that forced cyclin destruction in mitotic budding yeast cells efficiently drives mitotic exit events. However, these remain reversible after termination of cyclin proteolysis, with recovery of the mitotic state and cyclin levels. Mitotic exit becomes irreversible only after longer periods of cyclin degradation, due to activation of a double-negative feedback loop involving the Cdk inhibitor Sic1 (refs 4​,​5). Quantitative modelling suggests that feedback is required to maintain low Cdk activity and to prevent cyclin resynthesis. Our findings demonstrate that unidirectionality of mitotic exit is not the consequence of proteolysis but of systems level feedback required to maintain the cell cycle in a new stable state.

The eukaryotic cell division cycle encompasses an ordered series of events. Chromosomal DNA is replicated during S phase of the cell cycle before being distributed to daughter cells in mitosis. Both S phase and mitosis in turn consist of an intricately ordered sequence of molecular events. How cell cycle ordering is achieved, to promote healthy cell proliferation and avert insults on genomic integrity, has been a theme of Paul Nurse's research. To explain a key aspect of cell cycle ordering, sequential S phase and mitosis, Stern & Nurse proposed ‘A quantitative model for cdc2 control of S phase and mitosis in fission yeast’. In this model, S phase and mitosis are ordered by their dependence on increasing levels of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) activity. Alternative mechanisms for ordering have been proposed that rely on checkpoint controls or on sequential waves of cyclins with distinct substrate specificities. Here, we review these ideas in the light of experimental evidence that has meanwhile accumulated. Quantitative Cdk control emerges as the basis for cell cycle ordering, fine-tuned by cyclin specificity and checkpoints. We propose a molecular explanation for quantitative Cdk control, based on thresholds imposed by Cdk-counteracting phosphatases, and discuss its implications.