1. As ecosystems experience simultaneous disturbances, it is critical to understand how multiple stressors interact to affect ecological change. Land-use change and extreme flow events are two important stressors that could interact to affect fish populations.2. We evaluated the individual and interactive effects of discharge and land-use change associated with oil and natural gas development on populations of two stream fishes over a 7-year period. We used repeated-state (i.e. abundance trends) and rate (i.e. colonization and persistence) responses to advance our understanding of flow-ecology relationships in a multiple-stressor framework.3. Overall, fish abundance, colonization and persistence declined as discharge decreased. The effect of land-use change associated with oil and natural gas development differed between species, with the abundance of Mottled Sculpin declining and Mountain Sucker increasing as land-use change increased. We found both synergistic and antagonistic interactions between discharge and land-use change.Land-use change intensified the effect of low flows for Mottled Sculpin and lead to greater variability in responses to flow for Mountain Sucker. These differences between species' responses are likely due to differences in their physiological tolerances and behavioural adaptations to disturbance. Synthesis and applications.Our research provides empirical evidence for the complex interactions that can arise between discharge and anthropogenic land-use change. Management efforts to reduce inputs of sediments and chemical contaminants associated with land-use change (e.g. silt fences, vegetative buffers) and promote quality refuge habitats (i.e. in-stream habitat restoration) could help mitigate the negative effects of low-flow extremes on stream fishes. Further development of flow-ecology relationships in a multiple-stressor framework will help guide management of stream fishes, and provide a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying responses of different species. K E Y W O R D S colonization, multiple stressors, natural flow regime, oil and natural gas development, persistence, rate responses, repeated-state responses, stream fishes 150 | Journal of Applied Ecology WALKER Et AL. L a n d -u s e c h a n g e (% ) La nd -u se ch an ge (% ) Land-use change (%) Land-use change (%) Land-use change (%) Land-use change (%) Land-use change (%) Land-use change (%)

Native freshwater fish are experiencing global declines. Determining what drives native fish resilience to disturbance is crucial to understanding their persistence in the face of multiple stressors. Fish colonisation ability may be one factor affecting population resilience after disturbance. We conducted displacement experiments in headwater streams in Wyoming, USA, to evaluate mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdii) and mountain sucker (Catostomus platyrhynchus) colonisation ability. Specifically, we (1) determined whether fish could colonise sites rapidly after displacement, (2) evaluated site‐level factors affecting colonisation, and (3) compared species‐level differences in movement and colonisation capabilities. Mountain sucker recovered to pre‐displacement abundances within 6–11 weeks, but mottled sculpin were still at slightly reduced abundances. For both species, the majority of colonists were unmarked new individuals and size–structure was similar to pre‐displacement size–structure. Fish colonisation was best predicted by pre‐displacement abundance and an interaction between per cent riparian cover and species identity. The slower colonisation rate of mottled sculpin may relate to movement ability as average daily movement rate and movement extent were significantly greater for mountain sucker. Our results demonstrate that colonisation is one mechanism allowing fish populations to be resilient in the face of disturbance and that species' traits provide insight into fish colonisation capabilities. Experimental approaches provide mechanistic insight into colonisation dynamics, enhancing our understanding of native fish resilience in degraded stream ecosystems and their response to restoration actions.