Comparisons of 16S rDNA sequences were used to determine the phylogeny of not-yet-cultured spirochetes from hindguts of the African higher termite, Nasutitermes lujae (Wasmann). The 16S rRNA genes were amplified directly from spirochete-rich hindguts by using universal primers, and the amplified products were cloned into Escherichia coli. Clones were screened with a spirochete-specific DNA probe. Analysis of 1,410 base positions of the 16S rDNA insert from one spirochete clone, designated NL1, supported its assignment to the genus Treponema, with average interspecies similarities of ca. 85%. The sequence of NL1 was most closely related (ca. 87 to 88% similarity) to sequences of Spirochaeta stenostrepta and Spirochaeta caldaria and to a previously published sequence (ca. 87% similarity) of spirochetal clone MDS1 from the Australian lower termite, Mastotermes darwiniensis (Froggatt). On the basis of 16S rRNA sequence comparisons and individual base signatures, clones NL1 and MDS1 clearly represent two novel species of Treponema, although specific epithets have not yet been proposed. The gross morphology of NL1 was determined from in situ hybridization experiments with an NL1-specific, fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide probe. Cells were approximately 0.3 to 0.4 by 30 m in size, with a wavelength and amplitude of about 10 m and 0.8 to 1.6 m, respectively. Moreover, electron microscopy of various undulate cells present in gut contents confirmed that they possessed ultrastructural features typical of spirochetes, i.e., a wavy protoplasmic cylinder, periplasmic flagella, and an outer sheath. The sequence data suggest that termite gut spirochetes may represent a separate line of descent from other treponemes and that they constitute a significant reservoir of previously unrecognized spirochetal biodiversity.

The state of knowledge of the alien marine Mollusca in Italy is reviewed and updated. Littorina saxatilis (Olivi, 1792), Polycera hedgpethi Er. Marcus, 1964 and Haminoea japonica Pilsbry, 1895are here considered as established on the basis of published and unpublished data, and recent records of the latter considerably expand its known Mediterranean range to the Tyrrhenian Sea. COI sequences obtained indicate that a comprehensive survey of additional European localities is needed to elucidate the dispersal pathways of Haminoea japonica.Recent records and interpretation of several molluscan taxa as alien are discussed both in light of new Mediterranean (published and unpublished) records and of four categories previously excluded from alien species lists. Within this framework, ten taxa are no longer considered as alien species, or their records from Italy are refuted. Furthermore, Trochocochlea castriotae Bellini, 1903 is considered a new synonym for Gibbula albida (Gmelin, 1791). Data provided here leave unchanged as 35 the number of alien molluscan taxa recorded from Italy as well as the percentage of the most plausible vectors of introduction, but raise to 22 the number of established species along the Italian shores during the 2005–2010 period, and backdate to 1792 the first introduction of an alien molluscan species (Littorina saxatilis) to the Italian shores.

Haminoea japonica is a species of opisthobranch sea slug native to Japan and Korea. Non-native populations have spread unnoticed for decades due to difficulties in the taxonomy of Haminoea species. Haminoea japonica is associated with a schistosome parasite in San Francisco Bay, thus further spread could have consequence to human health and economies. Anecdotal evidence suggests that H. japonica has displaced native species of Haminoea in North America and Europe, becoming locally dominant in estuaries and coastal lagoons. In this paper we study the population genetics of native and non-native populations of H. japonica based on mt-DNA data including newly discovered populations in Italy and France. The conclusions of this study further corroborate a Northeastern Japan origin for the non-native populations and suggest possible independent introductions into North America and Europe. Additionally, the data obtained revealed possible secondary introductions within Japan. Although non-native populations have experienced severe genetic bottlenecks they have colonized different regions with a broad range of water temperatures and other environmental conditions. The environmental tolerance of this species, along with its ability to become dominant in invaded areas and its association with a schistosome parasite, suggest H. japonica could be a dangerous invasive species.

The national incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) exceeds that of any other disease in the pediatric population. In the United States the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports 697,347 annual TBIs in children ages 0–19 that result in emergency room visits, hospitalization or deaths. There is a bimodal distribution within the pediatric TBI population, with peaks in both toddlers and adolescents. Preclinical TBI research provides evidence for age differences in acute pathophysiology that likely contribute to long-term outcome differences between age groups. This review will examine the timecourse of acute pathophysiological processes during cerebral maturation, including calcium accumulation, glucose metabolism and cerebral blood flow. Consequences of pediatric TBI are complicated by the ongoing maturational changes allowing for substantial plasticity and windows of vulnerabilities. This review will also examine the timecourse of later outcomes after mild, repeat mild and more severe TBI to establish developmental windows of susceptibility and altered maturational trajectories. Research progress for pediatric TBI is critically important to reveal age-associated mechanisms and to determine knowledge gaps for future studies.

North Pacific specimens of Melanochlamys sea slugs were examined morphologically (including the male reproductive morphology, shell and external coloration) and were sequenced for three genes (mitochondrial COI and 16S and nuclear H3). Phylogenetic and species delimitation analyses were used to determine the evolutionary relationships and species diversity among the specimens examined. Both molecular and morphological data revealed an unexpected high level of cryptic diversity. At least four distinct species occur on the Northwestern Pacific. Melanochlamys ezoensis occurs in Russia and temperate and cold areas in Japan. Three additional undescribed species occur in Japan and/or South Korea. One of the undescribed species occurs both in South Korea and in Japan, but only in Tokyo Bay, suggesting that it could be non‐native in Japan. Two distinct species occur on the Northeastern Pacific coast; Melanochlamys diomedea is widespread from Southern California to Alaska, whereas M. ezoensis was found only in San Francisco Bay, suggesting a human‐mediated introduction. This is further supported by the absence of records of M. ezoensis in San Francisco prior to 2001. The species diversity of Melanochlamys in the Northwestern Pacific is much greater than in the Northeastern Pacific; it is hypothesized that differences in geographic and ocean current system complexity might account for different responses to glacial extinction and postglacial expansion.