Dendritic spines are the major sites of excitatory synaptic input, and their morphological changes have been linked to learning and memory processes. Here, we report that growing microtubule plus ends decorated by the microtubule tip-tracking protein EB3 enter spines and can modulate spine morphology. We describe p140Cap/SNIP, a regulator of Src tyrosine kinase, as an EB3 interacting partner that is predominantly localized to spines and enriched in the postsynaptic density. Inhibition of microtubule dynamics, or knockdown of either EB3 or p140Cap, modulates spine shape via regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching revealed that EB3-binding is required for p140Cap accumulation within spines. In addition, we found that p140Cap interacts with Src substrate and F-actin-binding protein cortactin. We propose that EB3-labeled growing microtubule ends regulate the localization of p140Cap, control cortactin function, and modulate actin dynamics within dendritic spines, thus linking dynamic microtubules to spine changes and synaptic plasticity.

The molecular mechanisms that determine the size and complexity of the neuronal dendritic tree are unclear. Here, we show that the phosphoinositide-3Ј kinase (PI3K)-Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway promotes the growth and branching of dendrites in cultured hippocampal neurons. Constitutively active mutants of Ras, PI3K, and Akt, or RNA interference (RNAi) knockdown of lipid phosphatase PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome Ten), induced growth and elaboration of dendrites that was blocked by mTOR inhibitor rapamycin and/or by overexpression of eIF-4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), which inhibits translation of 5Ј capped mRNAs. The effect of PI3K on dendrites was lost in more mature neurons (Ͼ14 d in vitro). Dendritic complexity was reduced by inhibition of PI3K and by RNAi knockdown of mTOR or p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6K, an effector of mTOR). A rapamycin-resistant mutant of mTOR "rescued" the morphogenetic effects of PI3K in the presence of rapamycin. By regulating global and/or local protein translation, and as a convergence point for multiple signaling pathways, mTOR could play a central role in the control of dendrite growth and branching during development and in response to activity.

Mechanisms controlling microtubule dynamics at the cell cortex play a crucial role in cell morphogenesis and neuronal development. Here, we identified kinesin-4 KIF21A as an inhibitor of microtubule growth at the cell cortex. In vitro, KIF21A suppresses microtubule growth and inhibits catastrophes. In cells, KIF21A restricts microtubule growth and participates in organizing microtubule arrays at the cell edge. KIF21A is recruited to the cortex by KANK1, which coclusters with liprin-α1/β1 and the components of the LL5β-containing cortical microtubule attachment complexes. Mutations in KIF21A have been linked to congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles type 1 (CFEOM1), a dominant disorder associated with neurodevelopmental defects. CFEOM1-associated mutations relieve autoinhibition of the KIF21A motor, and this results in enhanced KIF21A accumulation in axonal growth cones, aberrant axon morphology, and reduced responsiveness to inhibitory cues. Our study provides mechanistic insight into cortical microtubule regulation and suggests that altered microtubule dynamics contribute to CFEOM1 pathogenesis.

Liprins are highly conserved scaffold proteins that regulate cell adhesion, cell migration, and synapse development by binding to diverse target proteins. The molecular basis governing liprin/target interactions is poorly understood. The liprin-α2/CASK complex structure solved here reveals that the three SAM domains of liprin-α form an integrated supramodule that binds to the CASK kinase-like domain. As supported by biochemical and cellular studies, the interaction between liprin-α and CASK is unique to vertebrates, implying that the liprin-α/CASK interaction is likely to regulate higher-order brain functions in mammals. Consistently, we demonstrate that three recently identified X-linked mental retardation mutants of CASK are defective in binding to liprin-α. We also solved the liprin-α/liprin-β SAM domain complex structure, which uncovers the mechanism underlying liprin heterodimerizaion. Finally, formation of the CASK/liprin-α/liprin-β ternary complex suggests that liprins can mediate assembly of target proteins into large protein complexes capable of regulating numerous cellular activities.

Synapses are specialized communication junctions between neurons whose plasticity provides the structural and functional basis for information processing and storage in the brain. Recent biochemical, genetic and imaging studies in diverse model systems are beginning to reveal the molecular mechanisms by which synaptic vesicles, ion channels, receptors and other synaptic components assemble to make a functional synapse. Recent evidence has shown that the formation and function of synapses are critically regulated by the liprin-alpha family of scaffolding proteins. The liprin-alphas have been implicated in pre- and post-synaptic development by recruiting synaptic proteins and regulating synaptic cargo transport. Here, we will summarize the diversity of liprin binding partners, highlight the factors that control the function of liprin-alphas at the synapse and discuss how liprin-alpha family proteins regulate synapse formation and synaptic transmission.

Liprin-α2 is required for the presynaptic recruitment and turnover of RIM1 and CASK, components of the release machinery, and facilitates synaptic output by regulating synaptic vesicle pool size.

Neural activity regulates dendrite and synapse development, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is an important sensor of synaptic activity, and the scaffold protein liprinalpha1 is involved in pre- and postsynaptic maturation. Here we show that synaptic activity can suppress liprinalpha1 protein level by two pathways: CaMKII-mediated degradation and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. In hippocampal neurons, liprinalpha1 mutants that are immune to CaMKII degradation impair dendrite arborization, reduce spine and synapse number, and inhibit dendritic targeting of receptor tyrosine phosphatase LAR, which is important for dendrite development. Thus, regulated degradation of liprinalpha1 is important for proper LAR receptor distribution, and could provide a mechanism for localized control of dendrite and synapse morphogenesis by activity and CaMKII.

Liprin-α proteins are major protein constituents of synapses and are important for the organization of synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitter receptors on their respective sides of the synapse. Although it is becoming apparent that the single liprin-α gene in invertebrates is essential for synapse function, it is not known to what extent the four different liprin-α homologs (liprin-α1-4) in mammals are involved at synapses. We have designed specific antibodies against each of the four liprin-α proteins and investigated their regional and cellular distribution in the brain. Here we show that all four liprin-α proteins are present throughout the mature brain but have different regional distributions, which is highlighted by their differential localization in olfactory bulb, hippocampus, and cerebellar cortex. Double-immunofluorescence staining indicates that different liprin-α proteins are enriched in different synaptic populations but are also present at nonsynaptic sites. In particular, liprin-α2 is preferentially associated with hippocampal mossy fiber endings in the CA3, whereas synapses in the molecular layers of the CA1 and dentate gyrus double-labeled for liprin-α3. The localization of liprin-α2 and liprin-α3 with excitatory synapses was confirmed in cultured primary hippocampal neurons. Liprin-α4, which poorly co-distributed with presynaptic markers in hippocampus, instead strongly co-localized with VGLUT1 in the cerebellar molecular layer, suggesting its presence in parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses. Finally, staining of cultured glial cells indicated that liprin-α1 and liprin-α3 are also associated with astrocytes. We conclude that liprin-α family proteins might perform independent and specialized synaptic and nonsynaptic functions in different regions of the brain.