Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by the production of autoantibodies. However, the underlying cause of disease appears to relate to defects in T cell tolerance or T cell help to B cells. Transgenic (Tg) mice overexpressing the cytokine B cell–activating factor of the tumor necrosis factor family (BAFF) develop an autoimmune disorder similar to SLE and show impaired B cell tolerance and altered T cell differentiation. We generated BAFF Tg mice that were completely deficient in T cells, and, surprisingly, these mice developed an SLE-like disease indistinguishable from that of BAFF Tg mice. Autoimmunity in BAFF Tg mice did, however, require B cell–intrinsic signals through the Toll-like receptor (TLR)–associated signaling adaptor MyD88, which controlled the production of proinflammatory autoantibody isotypes. TLR7/9 activation strongly up-regulated expression of transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand interactor (TACI), which is a receptor for BAFF involved in B cell responses to T cell–independent antigens. Moreover, BAFF enhanced TLR7/9 expression on B cells and TLR-mediated production of autoantibodies. Therefore, autoimmunity in BAFF Tg mice results from altered B cell tolerance, but requires TLR signaling and is independent of T cell help. It is possible that SLE patients with elevated levels of BAFF show a similar basis for disease.

Asymmetric cell division is a potential means by which cell fate choices during an immune response are orchestrated. Defining the molecular mechanisms that underlie asymmetric division of T cells is paramount for determining the role of this process in the generation of effector and memory T cell subsets. In other cell types, asymmetric cell division is regulated by conserved polarity protein complexes that control the localization of cell fate determinants and spindle orientation during division. We have developed a tractable, in vitro model of naïve CD8+ T cells undergoing initial division while attached to dendritic cells during antigen presentation to investigate whether similar mechanisms might regulate asymmetric division of T cells. Using this system, we show that direct interactions with antigen presenting cells provide the cue for polarization of T cells. Interestingly, the immunological synapse disseminates before division even though the T cells retain contact with the antigen presenting cell. The cue from the antigen presenting cell is translated into polarization of cell fate determinants via the polarity network of the Par3 and Scribble complexes and orientation of the mitotic spindle during division is orchestrated by the Pins/G protein complex. These findings suggest that T cells have selectively adapted a number of evolutionarily conserved mechanisms to generate diversity through asymmetric cell division.

Cytotoxic lymphocytes rapidly respond and destroy both malignant cells and cells infected with intracellular pathogens. One mechanism, known as granule exocytosis, employs the secretory granules of these lymphocytes. These include the pore-forming protein perforin (pfp) and a family of serine proteases known as granzymes that cleave and activate effector molecules within the target cell. Over the past two decades, the study of granzymes has largely focused on the ability of these serine proteases to induce cell death. More recently, sophisticated mouse models of disease coupled with gene-targeted mice have allowed investigators to ask why granzyme subfamilies are encoded on different chromosomal loci and what broader role these enzymes might play in inflammation and immune response. Here, we provide a brief overview of the granzyme superfamily, their relationship to pfp, and their reported functions in apoptosis. This overview is followed by a comprehensive analysis of the less characterized and developing field regarding the non-apoptotic functions of granzymes.

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NK cells have been proposed to be an initial source of IFN-γ that supports either Th1 or CTL priming. Although NK cells reside in naive lymph nodes (LN) at a very low frequency, they can be recruited into LN draining sites of infection, inflammation, or immunization where they potentially influence adaptive immunity. In this study, we report that mature CD27high NK cells are predominantly recruited into the draining LN following dendritic cell (DC) challenge. Importantly, the recruitment of the CD27high NK cell subset in the draining LN was dependent on host IFN-γ and the activation status of NK cells. Endogenous epidermal DC migration induced by hapten challenge also triggers NK cell recruitment to the draining LN in an IFN-γ-dependent mechanism. Thus, our results identify that CD27high NK cells are the dominant population recruited to the draining LN and NK cell recruitment requires endogenous IFN-γ in coordinating with DC migration.