Oral delivery of peptide and protein drugs faces immense challenge partially due to the gastrointestinal (GI) environment. In spite of considerable efforts by industrial and academic laboratories, no major breakthrough in the effective oral delivery of polypeptides and proteins has been accomplished. Upon oral administration, gastrointestinal epithelium acts as a physical and biochemical barrier for absorption of proteins resulting in low bioavailability (typically less than 1–2%). An ideal oral drug delivery system should be capable of a) maintaining the integrity of protein molecules until it reaches the site of absorption, b) releasing the drug at the target absorption site, where the delivery system appends to that site by virtue of specific interaction, and c) retaining inside the gastrointestinal tract irrespective of its transitory constraints. Various technologies have been explored to overcome the problems associated with the oral delivery of macromolecules such as insulin, gonadotropin-releasing hormones, calcitonin, human growth factor, vaccines, enkephalins, and interferons, all of which met with limited success. This review article intends to summarize the physiological barriers to oral delivery of peptides and proteins and novel pharmaceutical approaches to circumvent these barriers and enhance oral bioavailability of these macromolecules.

Anatomy and physiology of the eye makes it a highly protected organ. Designing an effective therapy for ocular diseases, especially for the posterior segment, has been considered as a formidable task. Limitations of topical and intravitreal route of administration have challenged scientists to find alternative mode of administration like periocular routes. Transporter targeted drug delivery has generated a great deal of interest in the field because of its potential to overcome many barriers associated with current therapy. Application of nanotechnology has been very promising in the treatment of a gamut of diseases. In this review, we have briefly discussed several ocular drug delivery systems such as microemulsions, nanosuspensions, nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, dendrimers, implants, and hydrogels. Potential for ocular gene therapy has also been described in this article. In near future, a great deal of attention will be paid to develop non-invasive sustained drug release for both anterior and posterior segment eye disorders. A better understanding of nature of ocular diseases, barriers and factors affecting in vivo performance, would greatly drive the development of new delivery systems. Current momentum in the invention of new drug delivery systems hold a promise towards much improved therapies for the treatment of vision threatening disorders.

Ocular drug delivery is challenging due to the presence of anatomical and physiological barriers. These barriers can affect drug entry into the eye following multiple routes of administration (e.g., topical, systemic, and injectable). Topical administration in the form of eye drops is preferred for treating anterior segment diseases, as it is convenient and provides local delivery of drugs. Major concerns with topical delivery include poor drug absorption and low bioavailability. To improve the bioavailability of topically administered drugs, novel drug delivery systems are being investigated. Nanocarrier delivery systems demonstrate enhanced drug permeation and prolonged drug release. This review provides an overview of ocular barriers to anterior segment delivery, along with ways to overcome these barriers using nanocarrier systems. The disposition of nanocarriers following topical administration, their safety, toxicity and clinical trials involving nanocarrier systems are also discussed.

The transdermal route of drugs has received increased attention in recent years due to numerous advantages over the oral and injectable routes, such as avoidance of the hepatic metabolism, protection of drugs from the gastrointestinal tract, sustained drug delivery, and good patient compliance. The assessment of ex vivo permeation during the pharmaceutical development process helps in understanding the product quality and performance of a transdermal delivery system. Generally, excised human skin relevant to the application site or animal skin is recommended for ex vivo permeation studies. However, the limited availability of the human skin and ethical issues surrounding the use of animal skin rendered these models less attractive in the permeation study. In the last three decades, enormous efforts have been put into developing artificial membranes and 3D cultured human skin models as surrogates to the human skin. This manuscript provides an insight on the European Medicines Agency (EMA) guidelines for permeation studies and the parameters affected when using Franz diffusion cells in the permeation study. The need and possibilities for skin alternatives, such as artificially cultured human skin models, parallel artificial membrane permeability assays (PAMPA), and artificial membranes for penetration and permeation studies, are comprehensively discussed.

The electrospinning process has gained popularity due to its ease of use, simplicity and diverse applications. The properties of electrospun fibers can be controlled by modifying either process variables (e.g., applied voltage, solution flow rate, and distance between charged capillary and collector) or polymeric solution properties (e.g., concentration, molecular weight, viscosity, surface tension, solvent volatility, conductivity, and surface charge density). However, many variables affecting electrospinning are interdependent. An optimized electrospinning process is one in which these parameters remain constant and continuously produce nanofibers consistent in physicochemical properties. In addition, nozzle configurations, such as single nozzle, coaxial, multi-jet electrospinning, have an impact on the fiber characteristics. The polymeric solution could be aqueous, a polymeric melt or an emulsion, which in turn leads to different types of nanofiber formation. Nanofiber properties can also be modified by polarity inversion and by varying the collector design. The active moiety is incorporated into polymeric fibers by blending, surface modification or emulsion formation. The nanofibers can be further modified to deliver multiple drugs, and multilayer polymer coating allows sustained release of the incorporated active moiety. Electrospun nanofibers prepared from polymers are used to deliver antibiotic and anticancer agents, DNA, RNA, proteins and growth factors. This review provides a compilation of studies involving the use of electrospun fibers in biomedical applications with emphasis on nanoparticle-impregnated nanofibers.